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# Immunopaedia

Advancing global immunology education

## Sitemaps

- [XML Sitemap](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/sitemap.xml): Contains all public & indexable URLs for this website.

## Posts

- [A Comparative Analysis of Oral Contraceptives and Levonorgestrel IUDs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/a-comparative-analysis-of-oral-contraceptives-and-levonorgestrel-iuds/) - This analysis aims to provide healthcare providers and patients with clear understanding of relative effectiveness of these widely used contraceptive methods,
- [Development of mRNA Rabies Vaccines: A Promising Future](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/development-of-mrna-rabies-vaccines-a-promising-future/) - Effective rabies vaccine has taken a significant leap forward with the development of mRNA-based vaccines, as discussed in a detailed study published in Vaccine
- [Rabies Control in High-Burden Countries: Universal Pre-Exposure Immunization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/rabies-control-in-high-burden-countries-universal-pre-exposure-immunization/) - Rabies remains a public health crisis, especially in high-burden countries like India. The recent publication in The Lancet Regional Health emphasizes the need for a shift from the current reliance on post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) to the proactive use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in rabies-endemic areas. Additional Reading: Introduction to Immunization Strategies With over 59,000 global deaths
- [Tracking the Lethal Threat An In-Depth Review of Rabies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/tracking-the-lethal-threat-an-in-depth-review-of-rabies/) - Rabies remains a global health concern, causing thousands of deaths annually despite being preventable through vaccination. In their detailed review published in Open Veterinary Journal, Khairullah and colleagues explore the various aspects of rabies, from its virology and transmission to its public health implications. Read Further: A potential new vaccine for rabies The rabies virus
- [Acromegaly, Gynaecological Health, and Complementary Therapies: A Multidisciplinary Perspective](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/acromegaly-gynaecological-health-and-complementary-therapies-a-multidisciplinary-perspective/) - Acromegaly, a rare hormonal disorder caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone, presents with notable external changes, such as enlarged hands and feet.
- [Prenatal Diagnosis of Ocular Malformations: Cryptophthalmos, Aphakia, and Corneal Vascularization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/prenatal-diagnosis-of-ocular-malformations-cryptophthalmos-aphakia-and-corneal-vascularization/) - In a recent study, published in the European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology and Reproductive Biology, the authors present a rare case of prenatal ultrasound diagnosis involving multiple ocular malformations: complete cryptophthalmos, congenital aphakia, and corneal vascularization. These conditions, although uncommon, provide critical insights into prenatal screening and diagnosis of foetal abnormalities. The study aims
- [Diabetic Retinopathy and Toxoplasma gondii in Pregnant Hispanic Women](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/diabetic-retinopathy-and-toxoplasma-gondii-in-pregnant-hispanic-women/) - A study in Europe. Journal Obstet. Gynecol. links diabetic retinopathy to latent Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant Hispanic women.
- [Link Between PCOS and Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/link-between-pcos-and-idiopathic-intracranial-hypertension/) - The connection between polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is a growing concern in women's health, particularly for obese women of reproductive age. A comprehensive review published in the European Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology has delved into the prevalence and clinical implications of these two comorbid conditions. While PCOS is a Polycystic ovarian syndrome and idiopathic intracranial hypertension is a growing concern in women's health, particularly for obese women of reproductive age

## Pages

- [Immunopaedia - Free Immunology Education](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/) - Advancing global immunology education and research. Non-profit, free immunology online courses, clinical case studies, resources and scientific news
- [Placental protection of the fetus – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/placental-protection-of-the-fetus-new-insights/) - 21 June 2023 In a recent study, researchers have described the mechanisms underlying anti-viral protection of the fetus during pregnancy...
- [Immunity to HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/immunity-to-hiv/) - HIV Virus HIV is a retrovirus and made of double stranded RNA enclosed within a glycosylated capsid Target cells for HIV are any cell expressing both CD4 and CCR5 or CXCR4 (chemokine receptors) HIV has evolved to use these receptors to infect the “central command” of the immune system and by so doing ultimately disables
- [Immunity to Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/immunity-to-malaria/) - Malaria is a vector borne disease, caused by an intracellular parasite, the protozoan Plasmodium spp. It affects most tropical areas of the world (Figure 1), where mosquitos of the Anopheles genus are present. Young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to malaria infection, and most of the mortality occurs among children under 5 years
- [Immunity to TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/immunity-to-tb/) - Tuberculosis Protracted or chronic bacterial infections are often caused by organisms that have an intracellular phase; this requires that they are adept at the penetration, evasion, and exploitation of the host immune response. The classic example of a chronic bacterial infection is seen with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative organism of tuberculosis (TB), a major public health
- [Immunity to COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/immunity-to-covid-19/) - SARS-CoV-2 origin and transmission Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) first identified in December 2019, is the etiological agent of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 has zoonotic origin, and shares genomic similarity with other zoonotic viruses responsible for SARS (SARS-CoV-1) and MERS (EMC/2012 coronavirus) Genomic analysis SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated that the virus has a receptor
- [Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) infection – the role of T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/respiratory-syncytial-virus-rsv-infection-the-role-of-t-cells/) - 19 June 2023 A recent study has shed light on the crucial role of human T cells in controlling RSV infection, opening new avenues for vaccine development...
- [The immune system during old age](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immune-system-during-old-age/) - 16 June 2023 In a recent study, scientists have identified a key signalling molecule that, when lacking in certain immune cells, can induce age-related diseases in young mice...
- [Harmful blood in the brain – immune insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/harmful-blood-in-the-brain-immune-insights/) - 12 June 2023 New research has unveiled a fascinating connection between blood leakage into the brain and the activation of harmful genes in microglia, immune cells that reside in the brain...
- [Skin aging – IL-17 a role player](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/skin-aging-il-17-a-role-player/) - 14 June 2023 In a recent study, scientists have discovered that the IL-17 protein plays a crucial role in the aging process of the skin...
- [Case of eye injury and decreased vision](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/autoimmune-conditions/case-of-eye-injury-and-decreased-vision/) - Case study of eye injury and decreased vision - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Sympathetic ophthalmia plus the immunology of the disease.
- [Targeting cholesterol metabolism may help prevent liver cancer recurrence](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-cholesterol-metabolism-may-help-prevent-liver-cancer-recurrence/) - New research has identified a key metabolic pathway that enables liver cancer cells to evade immune attack, raising the possibility of improving both cancer immunotherapy and long-term patient outcomes...
- [New antibody markers could improve early Lyme disease diagnosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-antibody-markers-could-improve-early-lyme-disease-diagnosis/) - New research that a different class of immune markers, known as anti-lipid antibodies, could overcome some of the limitations in Lyme disease diagnosis..
- [New study reveals how malaria parasites breach red blood cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-study-reveals-how-malaria-parasites-breach-red-blood-cells/) - In a recent study, researchers have captured the moving junction in Malaria in unprecedented detail, revealing that it is not simply a passive gateway as previously believed...
- [Immuno-Cameroon 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/course-applications/immuno-cameroon-2026/) - IMMUNE TOLERANCE: IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DISEASE IMPM, Yaounde, Cameroon November 23–28, 2026 Immuno-Cameroon will introduce the key concepts and applications of immune tolerance in health and disease through lectures, discussions, and practicals by leading experts in the field. The course aims to help students, clinicians, and researchers better understand how immune tolerance is induced,
- [Chair and Vice-Chair Application](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/chair-and-vice-chair-iuis-edu/) - Applications for the positions of Chair and Vice-Chair of the IUIS EDU Committee The IUIS Education Committee (EduC) is a dynamic group of committed immunologists representing the Regional Federations (About IUIS » IUIS) encompassing Europe (EFIS), Latin America (ALACI), Africa (FAIS) and Asia-Oceania (FIMSA) and North America (AAI/CSI). The EduC comprises 16 official members.
- [Immuno-Madagascar Participant Report](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/immuno-madagascar-participant-report/) - IUIS-IPM Immuno-Madagascar – Participant Report 13-18 April 2026 From Basics to Breakthroughs: Linking Immunology to Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases Download the full report - Immuno-Madagascar-2026 Participant Report.pdf Day 1 – Monday, 13 April 2026 - Cristian G. Beccaria & Antsaniaina RAVELOMANANTSOA Prologue For most of the participants, this was our
- [Immuno-Peru Participant Report](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/immuno-peru-participant-report/) - A report by Immuno-Peru 2025 participants - including a daily summary, personal reflections and quotes from Faculty and other attendees. Download – Immuno-Peru 2025 Participant Report.pdf Immuno-Peru 2025: Science, Culture, and Community in an Unforgettable Opening Night - Luisa Barzola On the evening of October 5th, the main hall “Llaqta” filled with music, laughter,
- [Immuno-Cambodia Participant Report](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/immuno-cambodia-participant-report/) - A report by Immuno-Cambodia 2025 participants – including a daily summary, personal reflections and quotes from Faculty and other attendees. Download - Full Report_Immuno-Cambodia 2025-final.pdf Immuno-Cambodia 2025: Day 1 Summary - Aisya Alma Asmiranti Kartika The program was officially opened by Prof. André Spiegel, Director of the Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, who emphasised the
- [Immuno-Madagascar – Refresher Course](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/refresher-course/) - This refresher course is to remind you of concepts you have already learnt and thought about. It is not necessary to re-read all the papers, but you can use them to help you refresh your memory and to provide simple answers to the questions below. Module 1: Immunology of Infectious Disease Re-watch this
- [My skin peels off in blisters](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/autoimmune-conditions/my-skin-peels-off-in-blisters/) - Two months ago, Emilio started to develop painful oral lesions which affected food intake. Small erythematous plaques concomitantly appeared on Emilio’s scalp. Flaccid blisters were visible on the plaques, leading to skin detachment and erosions. Soon after, the plaques on the scalp began to expand and new plaques...
- [Weakness, myalgia, night sweats and sore throat](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/one-health/weakness-myalgia-night-sweats-and-sore-throat/) - A 36-year-old man developed two eschars (localized skin lesions) after visiting a rural field in Manzini, Eswatini. He has general weakness, myalgia, night sweats and sore throat. He reports having no rash...
- [Alexis M. Kalergis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/alexis-m-kalergis/) - June 2026Full Professor at Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and Director of the Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy (IMII), a Scientific Center of Excellence in Chile recognised by FOCIS. He leads research on infectious diseases, host–pathogen interactions...
- [Latest Interviews](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/) - Monthly interviews with Immunologists at the cutting-edge of research and education, giving insight into their research and studies.
- [Immunologist of the Month - 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/) - June 2026 Professor Alexis M. Kalergis is an internationally recognised immunologist, microbiologist, and biochemist whose work has significantly advanced our understanding of antiviral immunity, respiratory viral pathogenesis, and vaccine development. He is a Full Professor at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and Director of the Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy (IMII), a Scientific
- [Ambassador of the Month - 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/ambassador-of-the-month-2026/) - June 2026 Megan Burger completed a BHSc Honours degree in Medical Laboratory Science at Nelson Mandela University in Port Elizabeth, where she developed a strong foundation in the field. Following her studies, she worked as a Medical Technologist in a tuberculosis (TB) diagnostic laboratory, gaining hands-on experience in clinical pathology and the laboratory diagnosis of
- [CAR T Cells Delivered Directly to the Bladder Show Promise as a New Treatment Strategy for Bladder Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/car-t-cells-delivered-directly-to-the-bladder-show-promise-as-a-new-treatment-strategy-for-bladder-cancer/) - A new approach using genetically engineered immune cells could offer a future bladder-preserving treatment option for patients with high-risk bladder cancer...
- [How the Thymus Programs MAIT Cells for Life: New Insights into the Development, Migration, and Repair Functions of Innate-Like T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-the-thymus-programs-mait-cells-for-life-new-insights-into-the-development-migration-and-repair-functions-of-innate-like-t-cells/) - New research has revealed how a unique population of immune cells, mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, is programmed in the thymus to protect tissues throughout the body...
- [Rewriting the Immune System: Gene Therapy Offers New Hope for Patients with Rare CTLA-4 Insufficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rewriting-the-immune-system-gene-therapy-offers-new-hope-for-patients-with-rare-ctla-4-insufficiency/) - A pioneering gene therapy could offer a new treatment approach for patients living with CTLA-4 insufficiency, a rare and potentially life-threatening immune disorder caused by defects in immune regulation...
- [Watching Cancer Immunotherapy in Action: New Lab-on-a-Chip Technology Reveals How Individual Immune Cells Kill Tumors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/watching-cancer-immunotherapy-in-action-new-lab-on-a-chip-technology-reveals-how-individual-immune-cells-kill-tumors/) - A new platform, called CellTrap, is a miniature lab-on-a-chip system that tracks individual immune cells as they encounter and attack cancer cells...
- [Beyond Diabetes and Weight Loss: How GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Could Reshape the Treatment of Inflammatory Skin Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/beyond-diabetes-and-weight-loss-how-glp-1-receptor-agonists-could-reshape-the-treatment-of-inflammatory-skin-disease/) - A recent review highlights growing evidence that GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) may influence inflammatory pathways involved in several conditions...
- [Replacing the Immune System to Treat Autoimmune Disease: Long-Term Remission Achieved in Neuromyelitis Optica After Stem Cell Transplantation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/replacing-the-immune-system-to-treat-autoimmune-disease-long-term-remission-achieved-in-neuromyelitis-optica-after-stem-cell-transplantation/) - A new study has provided evidence that replacing the immune system itself may offer a path toward long-term disease control for patients with severe autoimmune disease...
- [IUIS-CIS Immuno-Cameroon 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cameroon-2026/)
- [Influenza Infection Weakens Anti-Tuberculosis Immunity, Revealing a Potential Role for Flu Vaccines in TB Prevention](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/influenza-infection-weakens-anti-tuberculosis-immunity-revealing-a-potential-role-for-flu-vaccines-in-tb-prevention/) - A new study has uncovered a previously unrecognised connection between two major infectious diseases: influenza and tuberculosis (TB)...
- [Targeting the Immune System to Treat Depression: IL-6 Blockade Shows Early Promise in First Immunotherapy Trial](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-the-immune-system-to-treat-depression-il-6-blockade-shows-early-promise-in-first-immunotherapy-trial/) - A new clinical trial has provided early evidence that targeting the immune system may offer a new treatment approach for a subset of people with depression...
- [Stem-like CD8⁺ T cells drive kidney injury in lupus nephritis through a chronic immune activation pathway](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/stem-like-cd8⁺-t-cells-drive-kidney-injury-in-lupus-nephritis-through-a-chronic-immune-activation-pathway/) - A new study has revealed how a specialised population of CD8⁺ T cells contribute to kidney damage in lupus nephritis...
- [Tuberculosis Rewires Lymph Nodes to Weaken T Cell Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/tuberculosis-rewires-lymph-nodes-to-weaken-t-cell-immunity/) - New research published reveals that chronic tuberculosis (TB) infection can create an environment that limits effective T cell immunity and allows the pathogen to persist...
- [Could Measles Vaccination Help Protect Against Future Nipah Virus Outbreaks?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/could-measles-vaccination-help-protect-against-future-nipah-virus-outbreaks/) - A new study provides evidence that T cells generated by measles vaccination may recognize and respond to other highly pathogenic paramyxoviruses, including Nipah virus...
- [Not only for the “gains” – Creatine and cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/not-only-for-the-gains-creatine-and-cancer/) - A new study reveals that creatine, a supplement best known for its use in sports and bodybuilding, may play an unexpected role in cancer immunity...
- [Carine Kunsevi-Kilola](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/carine-kunsevi-kilola/) - May 2026 A Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Reproductive Immunology Research Consortium in Africa (RIRCA) at Stellenbosch University, South Africa and a compelling voice in reproductive immunology and women’s health. She is an APTI fellow and L’Oréal-UNESCO for Women in Science...
- [A human skin atlas of psoriasis along time](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-human-skin-atlas-of-psoriasis-along-time/) - A new study provides one of the most detailed explanations yet for why therapies targeting IL-23 can produce long-lasting remission in psoriasis, even after treatment has stopped...
- [Is there a new type of T cell?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/is-there-a-new-type-of-t-cell/) - A study has identified a previously unrecognized subset of CD4⁺ T helper cells that may play an important role in chronic intestinal inflammation...
- [Long COVID and brain health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/long-covid-and-brain-health/) - A new neuroimaging study challenges one of the leading hypotheses surrounding long COVID, finding no evidence of widespread persistent brain inflammation in patients experiencing prolonged post-COVID symptoms...
- [Highlighting the importance of exercise in immunology and medicine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/highlighting-the-importance-of-exercise-in-immunology-and-medicine/) - A recent review highlights how physical activity reshapes immune-cell function, trafficking, metabolism, and differentiation across multiple tissues and disease states...
- [Single-cell insights into cystic fibrosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/single-cell-insights-into-cystic-fibrosis/) - A new study has provided one of the most detailed views yet of how lung disease begins in children with cystic fibrosis (CF)...
- [Oxidative stress linked to inflammation and cell death in acute pancreatitis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/oxidative-stress-linked-to-inflammation-and-cell-death-in-acute-pancreatitis/) - A new study has provided fresh insight into the complex immune and metabolic pathways involved in acute pancreatitis (AP)...
- [Turning the Tide: A New Era in Preeclampsia Care](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/turning-the-tide-a-new-era-in-preeclampsia-care/) - Preeclampsia remains one of the most dangerous complications of pregnancy and a leading cause of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Here we highlight some of the recent advancements shaping our fight against this disease...
- [B7 costimulation unexpectedly restrains microbiota-specific RORγt+ Treg cells in the gut](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/b7-costimulation-unexpectedly-restrains-microbiota-specific-rorγt-treg-cells-in-the-gut/) - A new study has uncovered an unexpected mechanism controlling immune tolerance in the intestine...
- [Human antibodies show promise against measles virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/human-antibodies-show-promise-against-measles-virus/) - Researchers have identified and characterized some of the first human antibodies capable of potently neutralizing measles virus...
- [Immuno-Madagascar 2026 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/immuno-madagascar-2026-introduction/) - From Basics to Breakthroughs: Linking Immunology to Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases Ampefy, Madagascar ABOUT IMMUNO-MADAGASCAR Organizers: International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) and Institut Pasteur de Madagascar Focus: Advanced immunology course on infectious diseases Key Topics: Immune responses to intracellular pathogens, including TB, HIV and malaria Duration: One week Course Course objectives: Provide high quality, up-to date immunology
- [IUIS-IPM Immuno-Madagascar 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/)
- [IUIS EDU Committee](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/iuis-edu-committee/) - These IUIS courses has been organised by the Education Committee. 2015: Immuno-Colombia and Immuno-South Africa 2016: Immuno-Tunisia, Immuno-Mexico, Immuno-Gambia 2017: Immuno-Ethiopia, Immuno-South Africa 2017, Immuno-Brazil 2018: Immuno-Morocco, Immuno-Kenya, and Immuno-Iran 2019: Mexico-Immunoinformatics, Immuno-South Africa 2019, Immuno-Benin, and Immuno-Jaipur 2020: Immuno-Ethiopia 2020 and fully virtual Immuno-Algeria 2020 2021: Fully virtual Immuno-Colombia 2021 and hybrid Immuno-Tunisia 2021
- [14th IDA and 11th Flow Course](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/course-applications/14th-ida-and-flow-cytometry-course/) - 14th IDA Symposium & 11th Flow Cytometry Workshop Training the next generation of African scientists Cutting-edge immune strategies for HIV, TB, and Malaria prevention African Flow Cytometry Workshop: 9 – 14 November 2026 (Cape Town, South Africa) Infectious Diseases in Africa Symposium: 16 – 21 November 2026 (Stellenbosch, South Africa) Additional Information &
- [Noncoding RNA found to play critical role in preventing celiac disease–associated inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/noncoding-rna-found-to-play-critical-role-in-preventing-celiac-disease-associated-inflammation/) - A new study has uncovered an unexpected molecular safeguard that helps the immune system tolerate dietary gluten, offering fresh insight into how Celiac disease develops...
- [Building a Cellular Map of Chronic Colitis: What New Multi-Omics Research Reveals About IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/building-a-cellular-map-of-chronic-colitis-what-new-multi-omics-research-reveals-about-ibd/) - A new study takes a major step toward understanding this complexity by creating a high-resolution, longitudinal atlas of chronic colitis...
- [Viruses Have Learned a New Way to Shut Down CRISPR](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/viruses-have-learned-a-new-way-to-shut-down-crispr/) - Researchers have discovered how viruses can block the bacterial defence protein CRISPR from ever existing in the first place...
- [Events](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/events/) - Immunology workshops, conferences and courses in Africa for healthcare professionals, researchers and students. Photos of IUIS courses hosted and created by Immunopaedia.
- [When Cellular “Wiring” Fails: How a Metabolic Defect Disrupts Natural Killer Cells in MKD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/when-cellular-wiring-fails-how-a-metabolic-defect-disrupts-natural-killer-cells-in-mkd/) - A new study sheds light on how a defect in basic cellular chemistry can ripple outward to drive systemic inflammation...
- [Mapping the Many Faces of Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Across Human Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mapping-the-many-faces-of-plasmacytoid-dendritic-cells-across-human-development/) - A new study using single-cell transcriptomics shows that Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are far from uniform...
- [Pancreatic Cancer’s Hidden Weakness: When Damaged Mitochondria Fuel Tumour Growth](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/pancreatic-cancers-hidden-weakness-when-damaged-mitochondria-fuel-tumour-growth/) - A new study has uncovered an unexpected vulnerability in our fight against cancer, rooted in how cancer cells exploit their own damaged mitochondria to survive...
- [When Antibody Drugs Backfire: New Clues to Predicting Anaphylaxis Risk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/when-antibody-drugs-backfire-new-clues-to-predicting-anaphylaxis-risk/) - A new study sheds light on a critical mechanism that may help explain, and eventually prevent, severe reactions to antibody-based therapies...
- [A Label-Free Breakthrough: Imaging T Cells in Real Time with Deep-UV Microscopy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-label-free-breakthrough-imaging-t-cells-in-real-time-with-deep-uv-microscopy/) - Researchers have developed a new method that could fundamentally change how we study immune cells, by imaging them live, label-free, and in real time...
- [When Killer T Cells Turn Against the Kidney: New Insights into Lupus Nephritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/when-killer-t-cells-turn-against-the-kidney-new-insights-into-lupus-nephritis/) - A new study reveals that CD8-positive T cells are not just bystanders in lupus nephritis, they are active drivers of tissue damage...
- [Faith Osier](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/faith-osier/) - April 2026 A renowned immunologist with groundbreaking work on malaria immunity and vaccine development. Faith is the Co-Director of the School of Convergence Science for Health & Technology and Chair of the Malaria Immunology & Vaccinology at Imperial College.
- [A Viral Trigger for Autoimmunity? New Insights into Epstein–Barr Virus and Lupus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-viral-trigger-for-autoimmunity-new-insights-into-epstein-barr-virus-and-lupus/) - 22 April 2026A new study takes a deep dive into GLP-1RAs, uncovering genetic evidence that these therapies may influence susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases...
- [NCDs, Rheumatology and Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/ncds-rheumatology-and-infections/) - Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are now understood as immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs), not merely lipid accumulation disorders. The understanding of atherosclerosis has evolved from "lipid accumulation" (1850–1980) to "lipid-driven immune disease" (1990–present). Multiple immune cell types infiltrate diseased arteries, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils. Artery Tertiary Lymphoid Organs
- [Vaccines and Clinical Approches](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/vaccines-and-clinical-approches/) - Vaccines Vaccines represent arguably the single greatest public health intervention in history, yet much about how they work, particularly the role of adjuvants, remains poorly understood. Adjuvants are vaccine components that enhance immune responses to co-administered antigens. Modern vaccine platform technologies, from live attenuated and killed vaccines through to recombinant subunit and nucleic acid platforms,
- [Fundamentals of Pathogens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/fundamentals-of-pathogens/) - Viruses - HIV HIV is one of the most immunologically complex viruses known, largely because of its remarkable ability to evade the immune system. It achieves this through three key mechanisms: high mutation rates driven by its error-prone reverse transcriptase, downregulation of MHC class I molecules to hide infected cells from T cells, and the
- [Career Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/career-development/) - Career overview - Jo-Anne Passmore Careers/collaboration in Glasgow - Mary Ryan
- [Fundamentals of Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/fundamentals-of-immunology/) - Generalities of innate immunity The innate immune system is operative on initial and subsequent encounters with foreignness and instructs the type of adaptive immune response that follows. One major feature of the innate immune system is that it is taken to be nonspecific, in the sense that anything the body identifies as foreign or non-self
- [Diabetes Drugs Under the Microscope: Could GLP-1 Therapies Influence Gut Autoimmunity?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/diabetes-drugs-under-the-microscope-could-glp-1-therapies-influence-gut-autoimmunity/) - A new study takes a deep dive into GLP-1RAs, uncovering genetic evidence that these therapies may influence susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases...
- [Not All Macrophages Are Equal: How Location and Lineage Shape Tumor Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/not-all-macrophages-are-equal-how-location-and-lineage-shape-tumor-immunity/) - A new study reveals a division of labour between macrophage subsets, showing how spatial organization within a tumour can determine whether these cells help fight cancer, or help it grow...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/grant-writing/) - Grant Writing Presentation - Prof Clive Gray
- [Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/introduction/) - AFRICAN IMMUNOLOGY OF PARASITES, PATHOGENS, AND PATHOGENESIS (AFriBOP) AfrIBOP is a week-long course that targets PhD students and early postdocs interested in the interaction between the immune system and pathogens – including how this underlies the pathogenesis of a wide range of infectious and non-communicable diseases. The course constitutes intensive, interactive learning sessions and simulations
- [When Diet Meets Immunity: How High-Fat Intake Disrupts Gut Immune Balance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/when-diet-meets-immunity-how-high-fat-intake-disrupts-gut-immune-balance/) - A recent study highlights just how rapidly the guts immune environment can be disrupted, revealing that high-fat diets can directly impair key immune cells in the intestine...
- [Macrophages in the Spotlight: New Clues for Predicting and Treating Pulmonary Fibrosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/macrophages-in-the-spotlight-new-clues-for-predicting-and-treating-pulmonary-fibrosis/) - Using single-cell and bulk transcriptomic datasets, researchers mapped how immune cells behave across healthy lungs, COPD, and IPF...
- [Rewiring immune cell metabolism could unlock more effective cancer immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rewiring-immune-cell-metabolism-could-unlock-more-effective-cancer-immunotherapy/) - A recent mechanistic study reveals how tumours disable key immune cells, and how restoring their metabolic fitness could dramatically improve cancer immunotherapy...
- [Blood inflammation marker may help detect Alzheimer’s disease earlier](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/blood-inflammation-marker-may-help-detect-alzheimers-disease-earlier/) - A recent study suggests that a blood-based inflammatory marker could play an important role in identifying people at risk of the Alzheimer's disease...
- [Lipid-rich joint environments may drive inflammatory T-cell death in rheumatoid arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/lipid-rich-joint-environments-may-drive-inflammatory-t-cell-death-in-rheumatoid-arthritis/) - New research provides insight into how metabolic conditions within inflamed joints may worsen inflammation in Rheumatoid arthritis...
- [Neutrophils linked to improved survival in colorectal cancer study](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/neutrophils-linked-to-improved-survival-in-colorectal-cancer-study/) - New research is shedding light on the complex role of immune cells in colorectal tumours, revealing that certain types of neutrophils may be associated with better patient outcomes...
- [Study uncovers unexpected role for MHC class I in CD4+ T-cell immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/study-uncovers-unexpected-role-for-mhc-class-i-in-cd4-t-cell-immunity/) - New research suggests that MHC class I molecules may play a broader and previously unrecognized role in regulating immune responses...
- [First FDA-approved gene therapy for rare immune disorder offers new hope for children](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/first-fda-approved-gene-therapy-for-rare-immune-disorder-offers-new-hope-for-children/) - A new gene therapy has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, marking the first approved treatment for the rare genetic immune disorder Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type I (LAD-I)...
- [Genetic study reveals evolution of a key malaria mosquito in South America](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/genetic-study-reveals-evolution-of-a-key-malaria-mosquito-in-south-america/) - In a new study, scientists analysed the genomes of more than 1,000 mosquitoes from the species Anopheles darlingi, the primary malaria vector across tropical Latin America...
- [Is this treatment failure or malnutrition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/secondary-immunodeficiencies/is-this-treatment-failure-or-malnutrition/) - Case of right malnutrition - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of HIV related diarrhoea in HIV positive child and study of immunology of infection in the gut
- [Africa](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/africa/) - Immunopaedia Ambassadors who work from Africa
- [Mohlopheni Marakalala](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/mohlopheni-marakalala/) - Nearly a decade ago we highlighted his pioneering work on TB granulomas and host-directed therapies. Prof Marakalala is now the Unit Director of the SAMRC Centre for TB Research at Stellenbosch University where he is focused on the immunopathogenesis of TB.
- [Treat-to-Target Strategy for Improving Management of Hereditary Angioedema](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/treat-to-target-strategy-for-improving-management-of-hereditary-angioedema/) - Researchers proposed a solution to adopted a Treat-to-Target (T2T) approach in HAE management...
- [Understanding HPV Immunity: New Insights into T-Cell Responses in Cervical Lesions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/understanding-hpv-immunity-new-insights-into-t-cell-responses-in-cervical-lesions/) - A recent study investigated how T cells, key players in the immune system, respond to HPV in both vaccinated women and women diagnosed with early cervical lesions known as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 1 (CIN1)...
- [Targeting MARCHF8 to Restore Immune Detection in HPV-Positive Tumours](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-marchf8-to-restore-immune-detection-in-hpv-positive-tumours/) - Researchers have identified a mechanism that allows certain HPV-associated head and neck cancers to evade immune detection...
- [Improving CAR T Cell Responses to Checkpoint Therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/improving-car-t-cell-responses-to-checkpoint-therapy/) - Recent research shows that CAR T cells struggle to maintain a population of stem-like T cells...
- [Immune and Genetic Factors Influencing COVID-19 Outcomes in Africa](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-and-genetic-factors-influencing-covid-19-outcomes-in-africa/) - Researchers have explored whether immune and genetic factors in African populations may help explain patterns of decreased severity in COVID-19 cases in these same populations...
- [Lactylation-Related Biomarkers in Psoriasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/lactylation-related-biomarkers-in-psoriasis/) - Recent research suggests that psoriatic skin exhibits increased aerobic glycolysis and lactate accumulation...
- [How Zika and Dengue Cross the Placenta During Pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-zika-and-dengue-cross-the-placenta-during-pregnancy/) - A recent review examines how these viruses infect the placenta and compares their epidemiology, pregnancy complications, and mechanisms of vertical transmission...
- [Endometrial Immune Cells May Influence IVF Implantation Success](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/endometrial-immune-cells-may-influence-ivf-implantation-success/) - A recent study examined whether specific immune cell populations in the endometrium are associated with pregnancy outcomes following frozen embryo transfer...
- [Immune Cells Play a Key Role in Breastfeeding and Long-Term Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-cells-play-a-key-role-in-breastfeeding-and-long-term-health/) - A new review highlights how immune cells, particularly T cells, influence both maternal and infant health during breastfeeding...
- [TIGRIS 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/course-applications/tigris-2025/) - Stellenbosch University & The University of Miami are pleased to launch the TIGRIS D43 training programme TIGRIS will enrich an ongoing registered post-graduate degree or post-doctoral fellowship (including an MMed or MPhil). Placement will be 3-6 months at collaborating laboratories in Stellenbosch University, UK, Canada or USA. The TIGRIS training programme aims to explore
- [Triple-Mode T Cells Take Aim at Tumor Escape](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/triple-mode-t-cells-take-aim-at-tumor-escape/) - A recent study reports an engineering strategy designed to shrink those escape routes by giving each T cell three independent ways to recognize and kill tumor cells...
- [Resistin Drives Inflammatory Cell Death in Sepsis Through a Newly Identified Signalling Axis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/resistin-drives-inflammatory-cell-death-in-sepsis-through-a-newly-identified-signalling-axis/) - New research identifies the inflammatory molecule resistin (RETN) as a key driver of sepsis progression through its effects on macrophages...
- [Serous Cavities: Overlooked Immune Hubs Surrounding Vital Organs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/serous-cavities-overlooked-immune-hubs-surrounding-vital-organs/) - A new review synthesises recent advances showing that the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities are not passive spaces but active reservoirs of immune cells...
- [Asia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/asia/) - Immunopaedia Ambassadors who work in Asia
- [13th IDA Participant Report](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/13th-ida-participant-report/) - Group photo at Devon Valley Hotel Day 1 - Zipei Wang Monday, 26 January – Getting to Know You & Emerging Technologies The first day of the 13th Infectious Diseases in Africa (IDA) symposium set a strong and welcoming tone for the week ahead. The morning began with a warm introduction by Prof. Clive
- [Mehrnoosh Arrar](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/mehrnoosh-arrar/) - Dr Arrar is a Assistant Researcher at CONICET at the Institute of Calculus at the University of Buenos Aires. Her research is molecular modelling of the NS3 helicase of dengue for the design of antivirals, which earned her the L’Oréal-UNESCO for Women in Science Award in 2025.
- [Defaulted treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/drug-response/defaulted-treatment/) - Case study of child non-compliant with ARV drug regime - investigation, diagnosis and discussion on treatment plans for ARV treatments.
- [Low-Dose Rapamycin May Protect DNA and Slow Immune Aging](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/low-dose-rapamycin-may-protect-dna-and-slow-immune-aging/) - A new study suggests that low-dose mTOR inhibition may directly protect the genome, offering a new explanation for its anti-aging effects...
- [Blood Inflammatory Markers May Improve Alzheimer’s Diagnosis and Reveal APOE4 Link](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/blood-inflammatory-markers-may-improve-alzheimers-diagnosis-and-reveal-apoe4-link/) - A new study suggests that specific inflammatory proteins in the blood could enhance the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease...
- [Personalised mRNA Vaccine Shows Durable Immune Responses in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/personalised-mrna-vaccine-shows-durable-immune-responses-in-triple-negative-breast-cancer/) - A new study has found encouraging results from a small trial of an individualized neoantigen mRNA vaccine in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC)...
- [Vaginal Microbiome Far More Complex Than “Good vs. Bad,” Study Finds](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vaginal-microbiome-far-more-complex-than-good-vs-bad-study-finds/) - New research challenges the long-standing idea that vaginal health can be defined simply by the presence of “good” Lactobacillus bacteria or “bad” Gardnerella...
- [African Genomic Diversity Reveals Unique Variants in Antibody Deficiency Genes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/42049-2african-genomic-diversity-reveals-unique-variants-in-antibody-deficiency-genes/) - A new study highlights significant genetic diversity in African populations within genes linked to humoral inborn errors of immunity (IEIs)...
- [Local Antibody Feedback Shapes How B Cells Compete During Vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/local-antibody-feedback-shapes-how-b-cells-compete-during-vaccination/) - New research reveals how antibodies generated early in an immune response can influence which B cells continue to mature in germinal centres...
- [25 year old female presents with persistent flu-like symptoms](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/drug-response/25-year-old-female-presents-with-persistent-flu-like-symptoms/) - Case study with persistant flu-like symptoms - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of drug induced NRTI induced lactic acidosis plus the immunology of the disease.
- [Phase II Trial Signals Breakthrough for First Targeted Sepsis Therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/phase-ii-trial-signals-breakthrough-for-first-targeted-sepsis-therapy/) - Researchers have reported promising results from a Phase II clinical trial of a novel drug designed to treat sepsis...
- [Early Skin Microbes Shape Lifelong Immune Balance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/early-skin-microbes-shape-lifelong-immune-balance/) - New research shows that interactions between microbes and immune cells shortly after birth play a critical role in setting long-term immune balance in the skin...
- [EBV-Targeting Killer T Cells May Drive Immune Damage in Multiple Sclerosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ebv-targeting-killer-t-cells-may-drive-immune-damage-in-multiple-sclerosis/) - Researchers have uncovered new evidence linking Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) to the immune dysfunction seen in multiple sclerosis (MS)...
- [Experience at the Global Young Scientists Summit (GYSS) 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/experience-at-the-global-young-scientists-summit-gyss-2026/) - 05 FebruaryClaire Baine, an Ambassador and a biomedical laboratory technologist at the I-Vac Group, MRC/UVRI-LSHTM Uganda Research Unit shared her experiences at the GYSS in early Jan.
- [Case of giant wart](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/case-of-giant-wart/) - Case of giant wart - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Giant Condyloma of Buschke and Lowenstein (GCBL) plus study of immunology of the associated HPV infection.
- [Inhalable Nanotherapy Reawakens Immune Responses in Checkpoint-Resistant Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inhalable-nanotherapy-reawakens-immune-responses-in-checkpoint-resistant-cancer/) - Researchers have now developed an inhalable nanotherapy that may overcome this resistance, particularly in cancers that spread to the lungs...
- [Seasonal and Pandemic Flu Vaccines Can Boost Cross-Protective Immunity Against H5N1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/seasonal-and-pandemic-flu-vaccines-can-boost-cross-protective-immunity-against-h5n1/) - New research suggests that sporadic human infection from H5N1 may be partly explained by variation in pre-existing cross-reactive antibodies...
- [A Key Enzyme Governs the Formation and Survival of Tissue-Resident Macrophages](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-key-enzyme-governs-the-formation-and-survival-of-tissue-resident-macrophages/) - Researchers have identified a critical enzyme that controls how long-lived tissue-resident macrophages develop and function across the body...
- [South America](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/south-america/) - Immunopaedia Ambassadors who work from South America
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/grant-writing/)
- [Mycobacteria Exploit an Immune Receptor to Survive Inside Macrophages](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mycobacteria-exploit-an-immune-receptor-to-survive-inside-macrophages/) - New research reveals that mycobacteria hijack a host immune receptor to create a more permissive intracellular environment...
- [Long-Term Pollen Exposure May Worsen Chronic Rhinosinusitis Symptoms](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/long-term-pollen-exposure-may-worsen-chronic-rhinosinusitis-symptoms/) - A new pilot study suggests that prolonged exposure to airborne pollen, particularly ragweed, may worsen symptoms and quality of life in people with chronic rhinosinusitis...
- [Shingles Vaccination Linked to Slower Biological Aging in Older Adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/shingles-vaccination-linked-to-slower-biological-aging-in-older-adults/) - A large population-based study suggests that receiving the shingles vaccine may be associated with slower biological aging at the molecular level...
- [A case of lymphadenopathy and night sweats](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/malignancies/a-case-of-lymphadenopathy-and-night-sweats/) - Case of lymphadenopathy and night sweats - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Multicentric Castleman’s disease (MCD) and study of immunology of disease.
- [Ambassador of the Month - 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/2025-ambassador-of-the-month/) - November 2025 Dr Alejandra Urioste is a research fellow, biochemist, and pharmacist from the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Alejandra, a keen Immunopaedia Ambassador, loves to share her experience and champion research and teaching around transplant immunology. Alejandra organised and ran a Virtual Pre-Congress Course in HLA and Transplantation, which took place online on Monday,
- [Doty Ojwach](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2026/doty-ojwach/) - Dr Doty Ojwach is a Senior Scientist at Stellenbosch University’s Reproductive Immunology Research Consortium in Africa where she focuses on understanding how maternal HIV and/or CMV co-infection shapes foetal immune development...
- [Afribop 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/)
- [AFRIBOP 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2026/)
- [Blood Metabolites Reveal Long-Term Risk for Type 2 Diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/blood-metabolites-reveal-long-term-risk-for-type-2-diabetes/) - Large population study identifies metabolic signatures that improve early risk prediction...
- [How Obesity Rewires Immune Cell Metabolism to Drive Chronic Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-obesity-rewires-immune-cell-metabolism-to-drive-chronic-inflammation/) - New research reveals a previously unrecognized metabolic mechanism that explains why immune cells in obesity become persistently overactive...
- [Why Only Some Psoriasis Patients Develop Psoriatic Arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-only-some-psoriasis-patients-develop-psoriatic-arthritis/) - New research identifies the immune cells that travel from skin to joints and why they trigger disease in some patients...
- [Why Lymph Nodes Matter for Cancer Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-lymph-nodes-matter-for-cancer-immunotherapy/) - New studies show that preserving lymph nodes may be critical for effective anti-tumour immune responses...
- [How Immune Cells Use Cell Death Machinery to Fight Brain Infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-immune-cells-use-cell-death-machinery-to-fight-brain-infection/) - 14 January 2026New research reveals that CD8⁺ T cells rely on caspase-8 to control Toxoplasma infection in the brain...
- [Not All Eosinophils Are the Same](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/not-all-eosinophils-are-the-same/) - A comprehensive single-cell atlas reveals how tissue environment and time shape eosinophil identity across the body...
- [Why Immunotherapy Often Fails in Colorectal Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-immunotherapy-often-fails-in-colorectal-cancer/) - New research uncovers how tumours use TGF-β to build a powerful double barrier against the immune system and how it might be dismantled...
- [A Longevity Molecule Shows Promise for Protecting Memory in Alzheimer’s Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-longevity-molecule-shows-promise-for-protecting-memory-in-alzheimers-disease/) - Researchers find that calcium alpha-ketoglutarate restores key brain functions disrupted by Alzheimer’s in preclinical models...
- [Rejuvenating the Aging Immune System With mRNA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rejuvenating-the-aging-immune-system-with-mrna/) - Researchers use a temporary “liver factory” to restore T cell strength in older mice...
- [Matching Immunotherapy Intensity to the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/matching-immunotherapy-intensity-to-the-immune-system/) - New analysis suggests immune signatures can guide safer, more effective checkpoint inhibitor combinations in melanoma...
- [Could Gum Disease Worsen Multiple Sclerosis?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/could-gum-disease-worsen-multiple-sclerosis/) - New research links oral bacteria to disability severity in MS, pointing to a possible “oral–brain axis” ...
- [How Gut Microbes Help the Immune System Protect Pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-gut-microbes-help-the-immune-system-protect-pregnancy/) - New research shows that beneficial bacteria train the maternal immune system to tolerate the developing fetus...
- [Using AI to Find the Best Vaccine Targets Faster](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-ai-to-find-the-best-vaccine-targets-faster/) - A new deep-learning framework combines protein language models and 3D structure to accelerate vaccine antigen discovery...
- [Fast Relief for Eczema Itch: How a New Injectable Is Changing Patient Care](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fast-relief-for-eczema-itch-how-a-new-injectable-is-changing-patient-care/) - Clinical trial data show nemolizumab eases itch and improves sleep within days for people with severe eczema and prurigo nodularis...
- [Helping CAR-T Cells Break Into Solid Tumours](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/helping-car-t-cells-break-into-solid-tumours/) - New strategies aim to overcome the biggest barrier to CAR-T success beyond blood cancers...
- [Gut insights - How Ebola and Marburg Viruses Destroy the Gut](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/gut-insights-how-ebola-and-marburg-viruses-destroy-the-gut/) - New research reveals that deadly filoviruses directly infect intestinal cells, disrupting fluid balance and driving life-threatening diarrhoea...
- [Rethinking Asthma: New Molecules May Be Driving Lung Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rethinking-asthma-new-molecules-may-be-driving-lung-inflammation/) - Researchers uncover “pseudo leukotrienes” that could reshape how asthma and inflammatory diseases are treated...
- [A New Angle on an HIV Cure: Targeting the Virus’s Hidden Stronghold](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-angle-on-an-hiv-cure-targeting-the-viruss-hidden-stronghold/) - Researchers uncover how chemotherapy-like strategies may selectively eliminate HIV-infected immune cells...
- [How Anxiety and Insomnia Quietly Weaken the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-anxiety-and-insomnia-quietly-weaken-the-immune-system/) - New research links poor sleep and anxiety to reduced natural killer cells in young adults...
- [Scientists Discover a New Form of Cell Death Triggered by Immunity and Nutrient Stress](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/scientists-discover-a-new-form-of-cell-death-triggered-by-immunity-and-nutrient-stress/) - A new study identifies “mitoxyperilysis,” a previously unknown cell death pathway that could be harnessed to treat cancer...
- [A Unified Global Pathway for Diagnosing Food Allergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-unified-global-pathway-for-diagnosing-food-allergy/) - New ANAcare report offers clinicians a practical roadmap for accurate, consistent diagnosis of IgE-mediated food allergy...
- [How Low Iron Levels Weaken the Lung’s Immune Defences](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-low-iron-levels-weaken-the-lungs-immune-defences/) - New research shows that dietary iron deficiency impairs antiviral immunity in the lungs and the effects may persist even after iron levels return to normal...
- [Early RSV Infection May Set the Stage for Childhood Asthma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/early-rsv-infection-may-set-the-stage-for-childhood-asthma/) - New research shows that protecting infants from RSV could prevent asthma later in life...
- [New insights - the workings of the M72/AS01E vaccine against tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-the-workings-of-the-m72-as01e-vaccine-against-tuberculosis/) - A recent study titled applies an integrated computational framework to characterize host immune responses induced by the M72/AS01E tuberculosis vaccine...
- [13th IDA 2026 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/13th-ida-2026-introduction/) - 13th IDA Symposium and Flow Cytometry Workshop Training the next generation of African Scientists Immune-based solutions required to curb the high rates of HIV, TB, and Malaria transmission The 13th IDA Symposium course which you have been selected for includes an online pre-course to prepare you for a more interactive physical course. The online
- [Immunity to HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/immunity-to-hiv/) - HIV Virus HIV is a retrovirus and made of double stranded RNA enclosed within a glycosylated capsid Target cells for HIV are any cell expressing both CD4 and CCR5 or CXCR4 (chemokine receptors) HIV has evolved to use these receptors to infect the “central command” of the immune system and by so doing ultimately disables
- [Immunity to Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/immunity-to-malaria/) - Malaria is a vector borne disease, caused by an intracellular parasite, the protozoan Plasmodium spp. It affects most tropical areas of the world (Figure 1), where mosquitos of the Anopheles genus are present. Young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to malaria infection, and most of the mortality occurs among children under 5 years
- [Immunity to TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/immunity-to-tb/) - Tuberculosis Protracted or chronic bacterial infections are often caused by organisms that have an intracellular phase; this requires that they are adept at the penetration, evasion, and exploitation of the host immune response. The classic example of a chronic bacterial infection is seen with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative organism of tuberculosis (TB), a major public health
- [Immunity to COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/immunity-to-covid-19/) - SARS-CoV-2 origin and transmission Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) first identified in December 2019, is the etiological agent of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 has zoonotic origin, and shares genomic similarity with other zoonotic viruses responsible for SARS (SARS-CoV-1) and MERS (EMC/2012 coronavirus) Genomic analysis SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated that the virus has a receptor
- [Nanodrops Through the Nose: A New Way to Treat Brain Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/nanodrops-through-the-nose-a-new-way-to-treat-brain-cancer/) - Scientists develop a non-invasive nanomedicine that delivers immune-stimulating therapy directly to brain tumours...
- [Why Some Arthritis Drugs Stop Working: New Clues From the Joint Itself](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-some-arthritis-drugs-stop-working-new-clues-from-the-joint-itself/) - In a recent study, researchers uncover how changes in joint immune cells may explain treatment resistance in rheumatoid arthritis...
- [Asma Gati](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/asma-gati/) - Professor of immunology and the Vice Chancellor for Research and Innovation at the University of Tunis El Manar. Asma leads the Genetics, Immunology, and Human Pathologies laboratory at the Faculty of Sciences of Tunis. Her work focuses on developing new cancer therapies.
- [Immunologist of the Month 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/) - November 2025 Professor Asma GATI is a professor of immunology and the Vice Chancellor for Research and Innovation at the University of Tunis El Manar. She leads the Genetics, Immunology, and Human Pathologies laboratory at the Faculty of Sciences of Tunis. Her work focuses on studying interactions between the immune system and cancer to develop
- [Contact Us](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/contact-us/) - Contact the Immunopaedia team and connect to us on Facebook and Twitter.
- [How Chemotherapy Triggers Pain Through the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-chemotherapy-triggers-pain-through-the-immune-system/) - New research reveals an unexpected immune-driven cause of chemotherapy-induced nerve damage and a possible way to prevent it...
- [Unlocking the Signal That Builds the Body’s Frontline Defenders](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unlocking-the-signal-that-builds-the-bodys-frontline-defenders/) - Scientists discover the molecular switch that drives tissue-resident memory T cell development, opening new doors for cancer, infection, and autoimmune therapies...
- [13th IDA 2026](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/13th-ida-2026/)
- [North America](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/north-america/) - Immunopaedia Ambassadors who work from North America
- [Rethinking T-Cell Names: From Subsets to Modular Biology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rethinking-t-cell-names-from-subsets-to-modular-biology/) - A group of immunology leaders have published a Consensus Statement setting out guidelines for how T cells should be named, defined and described in research...
- [Breaking Cancer’s Defences with a Molecular Crowbar](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/breaking-cancers-defences-with-a-molecular-crowbar/) - New “protein-degrading” compounds show promise against aggressive pancreatic and gastrointestinal cancers...
- [Common Childhood Virus Implicated in Triggering Lupus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/common-childhood-virus-implicated-in-triggering-lupus/) - A recent study reveals how Epstein–Barr virus reprograms immune cells to attack the body’s own tissues...
- [AI Learns the Language of Proteins to Design New Antibody Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ai-learns-the-language-of-proteins-to-design-new-antibody-therapies/) - Researchers use artificial intelligence to create functional antibodies against deadly viruses, without needing a physical sample...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/grant-writing/) - Examples from previous courses
- [How Long Do COVID-19 Vaccine Antibodies Last and Why Hybrid Immunity Matters](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-long-do-covid-19-vaccine-antibodies-last-and-why-hybrid-immunity-matters/) - A new longitudinal study tracked anti-wildtype SARS-CoV-2 spike IgG levels monthly in healthy adults from 2020 onwards, analysing responses after mRNA vaccinations...
- [Turning Translational Errors into Targets: Novel Neoepitopes for Cancer Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/turning-translational-errors-into-targets-novel-neoepitopes-for-cancer-immunotherapy/) - A new study uncovers how immune cells can exploit aberrant protein synthesis in cancer cells to identify shared, highly expressed targets for adoptive T-cell therapy...
- [How Low Oxygen Reprograms the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-low-oxygen-reprograms-the-immune-system/) - New research reveals how oxygen deprivation leaves a lasting genetic imprint on the body’s infection-fighting cells...
- [Cracking the Code of Brain Tumour Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cracking-the-code-of-brain-tumour-immunity/) - Recent research has revealed that it’s not simply the brain’s location that dictates how tumours respond to immunotherapy, but the type of tumour itself...
- [Measuring Immune Health: A Gene Signature That Predicts Who Gets Sick](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/measuring-immune-health-a-gene-signature-that-predicts-who-gets-sick/) - In a new study researchers have uncovered a shared biological thread: a gene signature of immune dysregulation that can predict how severely a person will respond to infection even before they get sick...
- [Lipids and Microglia Fuel Chronic Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/lipids-and-microglia-fuel-chronic-inflammation-in-multiple-sclerosis/) - A new study maps how immune and brain cells interact to sustain long-term inflammation in multiple sclerosis...
- [Bernard Kanoi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/bernard-kanoi/) - Bernard leads cutting-edge research on malaria, TB, and COVID-19 at Mount Kenya University. His work spans high-throughput immuno-profiling, vaccine antigen discovery, and maternal immunity. He is the Eastern Africa Regional Representative for FAIS.
- [When Immune Cells Strike, Lipids Lead the Way](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/when-immune-cells-strike-lipids-lead-the-way/) - A new study has uncovered a surprising link between lipid metabolism and the immune system’s ability to deliver its lethal cargo...
- [New Study Uncovers Cellular “Conversations” Behind Lung Transplant Rejection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-study-uncovers-cellular-conversations-behind-lung-transplant-rejection/) - Recently, scientists have provided the most detailed picture yet of how lung damage and transplant rejection unfold at the cellular level...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/grant-writing/) - Grant Writing Winners
- [Frontiers of Immunology: How Cutting-Edge Tools Are Transforming Immune Research in 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/frontiers-of-immunology-how-cutting-edge-tools-are-transforming-immune-research-in-2025/) - A new Nature Index 2025 Immunology report spotlights how these innovations are redefining experimental design, data analysis, and translational discovery across the field...
- [Gene Therapy Restores Immune Function in Children with Rare Immunodeficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/gene-therapy-restores-immune-function-in-children-with-rare-immunodeficiency/) - A new gene therapy has successfully restored long-term immune function in 59 of 62 children born with a rare and fatal genetic disorder that leaves children without a functioning immune system...
- [A case of cough, wasting and lymphadenopathy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/malignancies/a-case-of-cough-wasting-and-lymphadenopathy/) - Case of cough and lymphadenopathy - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Pulmonary Kaposi Sarcoma and study of immunology of Human Herpes Virus- 8 (HHV-8)
- [A sudden turn of events after successful therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/drug-response/a-sudden-turn-of-events-after-successful-therapy/) - Case study with effects of antiretrovirals after 9 months - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of ARV drug toxicity guidelines on drug toxicity.
- [Eight month old boy with recurrent infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/eight-month-old-boy-with-recurrent-infections/) - Case of recurrent infections - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of HIV plus discussion on why a negative ELISA test but positive HIV PCR obtained.
- [Astroimmunology: Defining a New Frontier in Space and Immune Research](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/astroimmunology-defining-a-new-frontier-in-space-and-immune-research/) - In a new study, researchers introduce the emerging field of astroimmunology. The study of how spaceflight and extraterrestrial environments influence immune function...
- [Cancer Immunotherapy Offers Hope for Long-Term HIV Control](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cancer-immunotherapy-offers-hope-for-long-term-hiv-control/) - 16 October 2025New Phase 1 clinical trial, reports that budigalimab, an immune checkpoint inhibitor targeting programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), was safe, well tolerated, and showed early signs of helping the immune system control HIV without daily medication...
- [Vision Nutrient Zeaxanthin Found to Boost Immune Response Against Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vision-nutrient-zeaxanthin-found-to-boost-immune-response-against-cancer/) - Researchers have discovered that zeaxanthin, enhances the tumour-fighting power of immune cells and strengthens the effects of cancer immunotherapies...
- [2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Pioneers of Immune Regulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/2025-nobel-prize-in-physiology-or-medicine-pioneers-of-immune-regulation/) - The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to Mary E. Brunkow, Fred Ramsdell, and Shimon Sakaguchi...
- [HIV Uses Tissue-Specific DNA Signatures to Hide Across the Body, Study Finds](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/hiv-uses-tissue-specific-dna-signatures-to-hide-across-the-body-study-finds/) - A new study from researchers has uncovered how HIV hides in different parts of the body by integrating into the DNA of infected cells in a tissue-specific manner...
- [Inflammation at Every Stage: How the Immune System Drives and Can Be Targeted in Atherosclerosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inflammation-at-every-stage-how-the-immune-system-drives-and-can-be-targeted-in-atherosclerosis/) - In a new study, researchers synthesise decades of discovery revealing how misdirected immune and vascular responses fuel disease progression and how this growing mechanistic understanding is reshaping cardiovascular therapy...
- [New skin fibroblast atlas reveals immune-related subtypes conserved across diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-skin-fibroblast-atlas-reveals-immune-related-subtypes-conserved-across-diseases/) - Researchers created a comprehensive atlas of human skin fibroblasts, profiling both healthy skin and 23 different skin diseases, with cross-comparisons to 14 other tissue diseases...
- [Colonic Inflammation Identified as First Trigger of Obesity-Linked Insulin Overproduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/colonic-inflammation-identified-as-first-trigger-of-obesity-linked-insulin-overproduction/) - Researchers have discovered that colonic inflammation serves as the earliest trigger in a signalling cascade that drives excess insulin production in obesity...
- [IUIS 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/iuis-2025/) - Summaries of Experiences at the 19th International Congress of Immunology (IUIS 2025) Vienna, Austria 17–22 August 2025 Doudou Georges Massar Niang My journey to the IUIS 2025 Congress began on August 16th, 2025, with my arrival in Vienna. From the moment I left the airport, the stunning Austrian landscape provided a breathtaking backdrop that
- [Nicole Prins](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/iuis-2025/nicole-prins/) - Nicole Prins - TIGRIS Awardee and RIRCA Scientific Officer and MSc Student The 19th International Congress of Immunology (IUIS2025), held in Vienna, Austria (17–22 August 2025), carried the theme: “Waltzing into the Future of Immunology: For a Better Health.” The congress highlighted how basic and translational immunology is shaping solutions for global health challenges—ranging from
- [Jennifer Rose Habel](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/jennifer-rose-habel/) - A postdoctoral researcher at the University of Melbourne. Her research focuses on cytotoxic lymphocytes, particularly natural killer (NK) cells and CD8+ T cells, and their roles in protecting against viral infections. Using advanced cellular and molecular tools such as single-cell RNA sequencing...
- [Restricted Blood Flow Ages the Immune System and Fuels Cancer Growth](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/restricted-blood-flow-ages-the-immune-system-and-fuels-cancer-growth/) - New research shows that cutting off blood flow prematurely ages the immune system, creating a cancer-tolerant state that accelerates tumour growth...
- [Immune Responses in Vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/immune-responses-in-vaccines/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand types of vaccines Read this resource: Understanding Six Types of Vaccine Technologies | Pfizer And this Immunopaedia Resource: Strategies for Vaccine Design | Immunopaedia Answer this question: Learning Objective 2 – immune concepts in vaccine development Read these papers: T cell vaccines - Novel approaches for
- [Arbovirus Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/arbovirus-immunology/) - Learning objective 1 – to understand arboviruses Watch this video (Stop at 40mins): Read this paper: Vector-Borne Viral Diseases as a Current Threat for Human and Animal Health—One Health Perspective - PMC Optional reading: A comprehensive overview of the burden, prevention, and therapeutic aspects of arboviral diseases in India | Communications Medicine
- [Fundamentals of Immune Response and Immune Regulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/fundamentals-of-immune-response-and-immune-regulation/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the scope and increase in infectious diseases, current challenges Read this paper: Answer this question Learning Objective 2: to revise the basics of the immune response to viral infections 2.2a Innate immunity: Read this content: Innate Immunity in Viral Infections | Immunopaedia Answer these questions Answer the
- [Equity, Diversity and Inclusion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/edi/) - Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Science and Immunology: Understanding and Reducing Bias in Southeast Asia Introduction: Welcome to this e-learning module on equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in science, with a particular focus on immunology, in the context of Southeast Asia. The world of science is rich in diversity—cultural, ethnic, generational, and institutional. Yet
- [Radiation Exposure Impairs Memory CD8 T Cells, Study Finds](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/radiation-exposure-impairs-memory-cd8-t-cells-study-finds/) - A new study explores how different subsets of memory CD8 T cells respond to radiation and what this means for immune recovery...
- [Diet Shapes How Chronic Diseases Accumulate with Age](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/diet-shapes-how-chronic-diseases-accumulate-with-age/) - A major Swedish study has shown that diet plays a critical role in how chronic diseases build up over time in older adults...
- [Brandon Paarwater](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/iuis-2025/brandon-paarwater/) - Brandon Paarwater – TIGRIS Awardee and RIRCA PhD Candidate Introduction The IUIS brings together immunologists from all over the world, showcasing all the various niches of Immunology, whether it’s inflammation, neuroimmunology, autoimmunity, cancer or tissue immunology. Here, the global immunology community unites not only to share knowledge and the latest key findings, but also
- [Doudou Georges Massar Niang](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/iuis-2025/doudou-georges-massar-niang/) - A Personal Reflection on the IUIS 2025 Congress in Vienna - Immunopaedia Ambassador Doudou Georges Massar Niang My journey to the IUIS 2025 Congress began on August 16th, 2025, with my arrival in Vienna. From the moment I left the airport, the stunning Austrian landscape provided a breathtaking backdrop that immediately gave me the
- [A throwback: TH17 development – immune insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-throwback-th17-development-immune-insights/) - Recent work identified a population of natural TH17 (nTH17) cells developing directly in the thymus...
- [Complement System Identified as a Driver of Preterm Birth and Fetal Brain Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/complement-system-identified-as-a-driver-of-preterm-birth-and-fetal-brain-inflammation/) - Researchers have uncovered a key role for the complement system in driving inflammation that leads to preterm birth and fetal brain injury...
- [Broad-Spectrum Antibody Cocktail Shows Unprecedented Protection Against Influenza](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/broad-spectrum-antibody-cocktail-shows-unprecedented-protection-against-influenza/) - Researchers have developed an antibody-based therapy that could transform how influenza is treated and prevented...
- [Electrical Stimulation Reprograms Macrophages to Boost Healing and Reduce Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/electrical-stimulation-reprograms-macrophages-to-boost-healing-and-reduce-inflammation/) - A team of researchers have discovered that applying electrical stimulation to macrophages can reprogram them into an anti-inflammatory, pro-healing state...
- [Roland Schelker](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/roland-schelker/) - Dr. Dr. Roland Schelker's research focuses on transcriptional co-regulators in CD8⁺ T-cell stemness, memory formation, and anti-tumour immunity, with the overarching goal of translating fundamental insights into transformative immunotherapies.
- [Metabolites from Microbes Inside Tumours Can Shape Cancer Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/metabolites-from-microbes-inside-tumors-can-shape-cancer-immunity/) - Recent evidence has highlighted a surprising new player within the tumour microenvironment: microbes living inside tumours themselves...
- [Brain anticipation of infection primes immune defences before pathogen contact](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/brain-anticipation-of-infection-primes-immune-defences-before-pathogen-contact/) - A new study demonstrates that visual cues of illness are enough to activate front-line immune cells, revealing a powerful link between perception and immunity...
- [A New Toolkit for Mapping T Cell Diversity Across Health and Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-toolkit-for-mapping-t-cell-diversity-across-health-and-disease/) - In a new study researchers introduce T-CellAnnoTator (TCAT), a computational pipeline designed to make sense of this complexity by quantifying gene expression programs (GEPs) across millions of single cells...
- [Environmental Impacts on Immune Responses to Infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/environmental-impacts-on-immune-responses-to-infection/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand One Health Read the definition of One Health from the USA Centres for Disease Control (CDC) - About One Health | CDC Read the definition of One Health from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) - One Health (fao.org) Answer this
- [Turning Down IL-6 Could Protect the Heart Without Raising Infection Risk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/turning-down-il-6-could-protect-the-heart-without-raising-infection-risk/) - New research shows that lowering IL-6 activity may help prevent cardiovascular disease, without leaving people more vulnerable to infections...
- [Mitochondria as Defenders: How Our Cellular "Powerhouses" Starve Invaders](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mitochondria-as-defenders-how-our-cellular-powerhouses-starve-invaders/) - New research shows they have another surprising role: acting as defenders by starving pathogens of the nutrients they need to survive...
- [HIV hiding in the Gut? New insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/hiv-hiding-in-the-gut-new-insights/) - A new study reveals how the body’s own protective immune programming in the intestine inadvertently creates a sanctuary for HIV...
- [CRISPR Screens Reveal STUB1 as a Brake on CD8⁺ T Cell Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/crispr-screens-reveal-stub1-as-a-brake-on-cd8⁺-t-cell-immunity/) - In a recent study, researchers have uncovered a molecular brake that limits the ability of CD8⁺ T cells to expand and fight cancer...
- [Mimicking a Rare Immune Disorder to Unlock Broad Antiviral Protection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mimicking-a-rare-immune-disorder-to-unlock-broad-antiviral-protection/) - Researchers shows how a interesting phenomenon could be translated into a short-term, broad-spectrum antiviral therapy with potential applications in future pandemics...
- [Central Memory Killer T Cells Sustain Lifelong Influenza Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/central-memory-killer-t-cells-sustain-lifelong-influenza-immunity/) - A new study reveals that central memory CD8+ T cells are established in early childhood and persist across the human lifespan, underpinning long-term immunity to influenza...
- [Pembrolizumab Shows Exceptional Efficacy in Advanced Desmoplastic Melanoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/pembrolizumab-shows-exceptional-efficacy-in-advanced-desmoplastic-melanoma/) - A new study has demonstrated that pembrolizumab, an anti-PD-1 immune checkpoint inhibitor, induces remarkable tumour regression in advanced unresectable desmoplastic melanoma...
- [CXCL12-CXCR4 Signalling Drives CD8⁺ T Cell Recruitment Into Atherosclerotic Plaques](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cxcl12-cxcr4-signalling-drives-cd8⁺-t-cell-recruitment-into-atherosclerotic-plaques/) - Researchers have uncovered a key mechanism controlling CD8⁺ T cell infiltration into atherosclerotic plaques, highlighting a potential therapeutic target for cardiovascular disease...
- [Maternal Placental Inflammation Primes Offspring for Stronger Allergic Responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/maternal-placental-inflammation-primes-offspring-for-stronger-allergic-responses/) - For the first time, researchers have shown that inflammation within the placenta during pregnancy can directly reprogram the fetal immune system, leading to heightened allergic responses after birth...
- [Microenvironment-Sensing CAR T Cells Boost Solid Tumor Therapy While Protecting Healthy Tissue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/microenvironment-sensing-car-t-cells-boost-solid-tumor-therapy-while-protecting-healthy-tissue/) - In a major advance for cancer immunotherapy, researchers have developed a new type of CAR T cell that only activates its tumor-killing machinery when it encounters specific features of the tumor microenvironment...
- [Immune Response to HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/immune-response-to-hiv/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the pathogenesis of HIV infection Watch this video: Read this article Answer these questions Learning Objective 2: To understand how HIV infects the body and disrupts immune function Watch this video Answer these questions Learning Objective 3: To understand how pediatric HIV
- [Immune Responses to Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/immune-responses-to-malaria/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand malaria pathogenesis Watch this Read this review - Malaria: A comprehensive review of its biology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention Answer these questions Learning Objective 2: to understand the immune response to Malaria Read this review - Immune responses to malaria pre‐erythrocytic stages: Implications for vaccine development
- [Immune Responses to TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/immune-responses-to-tb/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection Watch this video: Read this Review - Frontiers | Immune Response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis: A Narrative Review Answer these questions: Learning Objective 2: to understand the role of macrophages in TB infection Read this review Read this
- [Vaccines Against Infectious Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/vaccines-against-infectious-disease/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand types of vaccines Read this resource - Understanding Six Types of Vaccine Technologies | Pfizer Answer this question Learning objective 2: to understand challenges to TB vaccines Read this review - Key advances in vaccine development for tuberculosis—success and challenges | npj Vaccines Read
- [One Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/one-health-2/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand One Health Read this report - One Health: How to Achieve Optimal Health for People, Animals and Our Planet - Blog - ISGLOBAL Watch this video: Answer these questions:
- [Immunology of Infectious Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/immunology-of-infectious-disease/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the basic principles of the immune response to infections Answer these questions Learning Objective 2: to understand microbial pathogenesis Answer these questions Learning Objective 3: to understand immune responses to infection Read the content provided at Immunopaedia – Basics of Anti-infectious Immunity Complete the quiz section: Now
- [Equity, Diversity and Inclusion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-madagascar-2025/edi/) - Current research suggests that unintended biases in decision-making, ‘implicit bias,’ may contribute to disparities by shaping researcher behaviour. This course, designed in alignment with current research, aims to review the definitions of implicit bias, sexism, and exclusion in STEM. Crucially, we are committed to discussing how to implement bias-reducing strategies to achieve equity and foster
- [Mix It Up: Diverse Flavonoid Intake Linked to Longer Life and Lower Disease Risk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mix-it-up-diverse-flavonoid-intake-linked-to-longer-life-and-lower-disease-risk-2/) - A recent study provided the first large-scale evidence showing that variety matters when it comes to flavonoid intake to lower risk of disease...
- [Scientists Reprogram Stem Cells to Produce Lifelong Cancer-Fighting T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/scientists-reprogram-stem-cells-to-produce-lifelong-cancer-fighting-t-cells/) - In a new first-in-human trial, researchers have successfully engineered patients’ own blood-forming stem cells to continuously produce cancer-killing T cells, a major step forward in long-lasting immunotherapy for hard-to-treat cancers...
- [New Test Can Distinguish Mpox Infection from Vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-test-can-distinguish-mpox-infection-from-vaccination/) - A new study describes the development of a high-throughput, quantitative immunoassay that can identify and differentiate immune responses from Mpox infection versus Orthopoxvirus vaccination...
- [Why Lupus Symptoms Improve with Age](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-lupus-symptoms-improve-with-age/) - In a new study published researchers found that interferon-related gene activity declines with age in lupus patients...
- [4 year old boy with recurrent bacterial infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/primary-immunodeficiencies/4-year-old-boy-with-recurrent-bacterial-infections/) - Case of recurrent bacterial infections - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Complement Deficiency and study of immunology of defects in lytic activity
- [How the Immune System May Be Driving Mental Illness](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-the-immune-system-may-be-driving-mental-illness/) - In a new study, researchers used Mendelian randomisation, a genetic technique leveraging large-scale population datasets, to examine the role of the immune system in seven major neuropsychiatric conditions...
- [Non-Infection Immune Responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/non-infection-immune-responses/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the role of the immune response in non-infectious disease Read these short topics, which are designed for people new to immunology: 1) Allergy Allergies: Types, Symptoms, Treatment & Management Allergy | British Society for Immunology The Basics of Neutrophilic Asthma: Diagnosis and Treatment Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis: Causes, Symptoms &
- [Immunology of Infectious Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/immunology-of-infectious-disease/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the basic principles of the immune response to infections Answer these questions: Learning Objective 2: to understand microbial pathogenesis Answer these questions: Learning Objective 3: to understand immune responses to infection Read the content provided at Immunopaedia – Basics of Anti-infectious Immunity Complete the quiz section:
- [Equity, Diversity and Inclusion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/edi/) - Current research suggests that unintended biases in decision-making, ‘implicit bias,’ may contribute to disparities by shaping researcher behaviour. This course, designed in alignment with current research, aims to review the definitions of implicit bias, sexism, and exclusion in STEM. Crucially, we are committed to discussing how to implement bias-reducing strategies to achieve equity and foster
- [Kondwani Jambo](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/kondwani-jambo/) - Prof Kondwani Jambo is a Research Group Leader based at the Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Research Programme (MLW) and a Professor of Immunology and Infection at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK. He holds a PhD in Immunology...
- [20 years of Immunopaedia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/20-years-of-immunopaedia/) - Immunopaedia's 20th Birthday Celebrations! On 19 June 2025, we celebrated two decades of advancing immunology education through a vibrant hybrid Mini Symposium at Stellenbosch University, Cape Town. Founded in 2005 by Professor Clive Gray, Immunopaedia has grown into a global platform. It was a joy to reflect on this journey with esteemed speakers from across
- [Justin Komguep Nono](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/justin-komguep-nono/) - Dr. Justin Komguep Nono is a Cameroonian immunoparasitologist recognised for his research on host–helminth interactions, specifically how helminths modulate immune and vaccine responses. He heads the Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology...
- [New Drug Strategy Targets Tumour Support Cells to Overcome Ovarian Cancer Resistance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-drug-strategy-targets-tumour-support-cells-to-overcome-ovarian-cancer-resistance/) - Researchers have discovered how to block an enzyme called NNMT, which plays a central role in helping ovarian tumours evade the immune system...
- [Fuelling Youth - How Choline Shapes the Health of Human Blood Stem Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fuelling-youth-how-choline-shapes-the-health-of-human-blood-stem-cells/) - A new study has mapped out the molecular and metabolic transformations that blood stem cells undergo during aging, differentiation, and disease...
- [Epigenetic ‘Fingerprint’ Reveals How Regulatory T Cells Adapt to Heal Tissues](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/epigenetic-fingerprint-reveals-how-regulatory-t-cells-adapt-to-heal-tissues/) - A new study described the transformation of Treg cells in tissue resident Treg cells by uncovering distinct epigenetic changes that enable Treg cells to acquire tissue-healing functions...
- [I have spots and my skin burns](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/i-have-spots-and-my-skin-burns/) - Case study of cryoglobulins as an example of pathogenic immune complexes- including investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Hepatitis C virus associated mixed cryoglobulinemia vasculitis
- [How Diet Shapes the Gut Immune System - Beyond the Microbiome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-diet-shapes-the-gut-immune-system-beyond-the-microbiome/) - New research reveals that diet alone can drive long-lasting changes in IgA responses, independent of the gut microbiota...
- [A Conserved Gene Signature Predicts Immune Dysregulation and Severe Infection Outcomes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-conserved-gene-signature-predicts-immune-dysregulation-and-severe-infection-outcomes/) - In a new study, researchers have shown that a 42-gene “Signature of Misfiring” (SoM) serves as a robust predictor of immune dysfunction across individuals at high risk of severe infections...
- [New Nasal Antibody Therapy Shows Promise for Blocking Pollen Allergies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-nasal-antibody-therapy-shows-promise-for-blocking-pollen-allergies/) - Researchers have engineered a monoclonal antibody that, when applied directly to the inside of the nose, protected mice from developing allergy and asthma-like symptoms...
- [Evaluating Bone Health in Long-Term Vegan Adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/evaluating-bone-health-in-long-term-vegan-adults/) - Bone health is vital for vegans, as key sources of calcium and vitamin D—crucial for bone density—are mainly found in dairy products.
- [How Vitamin D Shapes Immune Function and its Link to Autoimmune Diseas](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-vitamin-d-shapes-immune-function-and-its-link-to-autoimmune-diseases/) - 16 July 2025Vitamin D is often celebrated for its role in bone health and general well-being, but new research reveals it also plays a critical role in regulating the immune system.
- [Study Challenges Long-Held Beliefs About Latent Brain Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/study-challenges-long-held-beliefs-about-latent-brain-infections/) - A new study shows that the immune system can detect and respond to latent Toxoplasma gondii infections...
- [New Study Reveals How a Key Immune Protein Fuels Severe COVID-19 Pneumonia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-study-reveals-how-a-key-immune-protein-fuels-severe-covid-19-pneumonia/) - A new study identifies the immune protein lipocalin 2 (Lcn2) as a major contributor to lung injury in severe cases of COVID-19...
- [New Study Reveals Why CAR-T Therapy Can Cause 'Brain Fog' and How to Reverse It](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-study-reveals-why-car-t-therapy-can-cause-brain-fog-and-how-to-reverse-it/) - A recent study reveals that these cognitive side effects, in brain rot, are a real, measurable phenomenon in response to cancer therapies...
- [Biologics Help Asthma—But Inflammatory Immune Cells May Persist, Study Finds](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/biologics-help-asthma-but-inflammatory-immune-cells-may-persist-study-finds/) - In a new study, researchers analysed blood samples from patients undergoing biologic treatment and discovered a surprising pattern: rather than being reduced, some inflammatory immune cells increased during therapy...
- [Mapping the T Cell Response to Chikungunya: A Step Toward Targeted Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mapping-the-t-cell-response-to-chikungunya-a-step-toward-targeted-therapies/) - A new study provides the first detailed map of how the human immune system, specifically T cells, recognizes and responds to the Chikungunya virus, a mosquito-borne pathogen known for causing long-lasting joint pain...
- [T Cells May Be Active Players in the Earliest Stages of Parkinson’s Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cells-may-be-active-players-in-the-earliest-stages-of-parkinsons-disease/) - In a new study researchers at the provide the strongest evidence yet that T cells reactive to proteins implicated in Parkinson’s emerge during the prodromal stage of the disease - years or even decades before a clinical diagnosis...
- [Analysis of Adherence to a Healthy Lifestyle Among Vegetarian and Non-Vegetarian Peruvian University Students](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/analysis-of-adherence-to-a-healthy-lifestyle-among-vegetarian-and-non-vegetarian-peruvian-university-students/) - Well-balanced vegetarian diets may support young adult health and help reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases, this study suggests.
- [How Just a Few High-Fat Meals Can Disrupt Your Gut’s Immune Defences](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-just-a-few-high-fat-meals-can-disrupt-your-guts-immune-defences/) - 30 June, 2025 New research reveals that even short-term exposure to a high-fat diet can immediately impair gut immunity—long before any physical symptoms appear...
- [Vegan Diet Health Benefits in Metabolic Syndrome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vegan-diet-health-benefits-in-metabolic-syndrome/) - A vegan diet provides substantial health benefits for managing metabolic syndrome and by reducing the intake of saturated fats &incorporating plant-based foods
- [How Macrophages Respond to Toxic Particles: Two Pathways, One Immune Cell, Many Disease Clues](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-macrophages-respond-to-toxic-particles-two-pathways-one-immune-cell-many-disease-clues/) - 27 June, 2025 A new study has revealed how immune cells known as macrophages orchestrate their response to airborne particles - through two distinct transcriptional programs that govern inflammation and cellular housekeeping separately...
- [New Therapeutic Target Discovered in Chronic Inflammatory Bowel Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-therapeutic-target-discovered-in-chronic-inflammatory-bowel-disease/) - Researchers have identified a key driver of persistent gut inflammation, uncovering a promising new target for therapy...
- [Rebooting the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rebooting-the-immune-system/) - Researchers have identified a promising way to restore immune function in sepsis using a drug already approved for another condition...
- [MHC & Antigen Presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/uct-advanced-immunology/mhc-antigen-presentation/) - Background The MHC molecules are glycoproteins encoded in a large cluster of genes located on chromosome 6. They were first identified by their potent effect on the immune response to transplanted tissue (see later). For that reason, the gene complex was termed the ‘‘major histocompatibility complex.’’ MHC genes (called the H-2 complex in mice) were
- [MHC & Antigen Presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/mhc-antigen-presentation/) - Background The MHC molecules are glycoproteins encoded in a large cluster of genes located on chromosome 6. They were first identified by their potent effect on the immune response to transplanted tissue (see later). For that reason, the gene complex was termed the ‘‘major histocompatibility complex.’’ MHC genes (called the H-2 complex in mice) were
- [4. MHC & Antigen Presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/basics/4-mhc-antigen-presentation/) - MHC (major histocompatibility complex) molecules are glycoproteins that present antigens to T cells to discriminate between self (our cells) and non-self (the invaders or modified self).
- [4. MHC & Antigen Presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/mhc-antigen-presentation/) - Background The MHC molecules are glycoproteins encoded in a large cluster of genes located on chromosome 6. They were first identified by their potent effect on the immune response to transplanted tissue (see later). For that reason, the gene complex was termed the ‘‘major histocompatibility complex.’’ MHC genes (called the H-2 complex in mice) were
- [How Early-Life Environments - Might Influence a Child’s Risk of Eczema](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-early-life-environments-might-influence-a-childs-risk-of-eczema/) - A new study has revealed insights into how a child’s environment interacts with their genes to influence the risk of developing atopic eczema...
- [Neutrophil Dynamics and Their Role in HIV Progression within Malaria Co-Infected Patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/neutrophil-dynamics-and-their-role-in-hiv-progression-within-malaria-co-infected-patients/) - HIV and malaria co-infections remain a significant public health issue in areas where both diseases are prevalent.
- [How Immune Cell Signatures Shape Outcomes in Systemic Sclerosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-immune-cell-signatures-shape-outcomes-in-systemic-sclerosis/) - In a new study, a team used single-cell analysis to identify specific immune cell populations that correlate with different systemic sclerosis outcomes...
- [How Our Individual Immunity Shapes the Evolution of the Flu Virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-our-individual-immunity-shapes-the-evolution-of-the-flu-virus/) - A new study describes on how differences in individual immune responses influence which flu strains take hold in a population...
- [20th Birthday Mini Symposium Programme](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/20th-birthday-mini-symposium-programme/) - 19 June, 2025🎉 This week is the big celebration! Join us Thursday, 19 June 2025 for the Immunopaedia 20th Birthday Symposium – celebrating two decades of global immunology learning!
- [A New Tool to Study Immunity and Disease - Lymph Node-on-a-Chip](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-tool-to-study-immunity-and-disease-lymph-node-on-a-chip/) - Researchers have developed a sophisticated laboratory model that mimics the structural and functional environment of a human lymph node...
- [Toward an HIV Vaccine: Stepwise mRNA Strategy Activates Key Immune Responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/toward-an-hiv-vaccine-stepwise-mrna-strategy-activates-key-immune-responses/) - A new study offers strong evidence that a stepwise, mRNA-based vaccine strategy can prime and guide immune responses in humans—marking a pivotal advance in the quest for a globally effective HIV vaccine...
- [Unlocking Natural Killers: New Discovery Supercharges the Body’s Cancer-Fighting Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unlocking-natural-killers-new-discovery-supercharges-the-bodys-cancer-fighting-cells/) - By using CRISPR-based screening, they discovered a gene that, when switched off in NK cells, dramatically increases their sensitivity to IL-15—even at low levels...
- [Liquid Biopsy Offers Hope for Early Cancer Detection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/liquid-biopsy-offers-hope-for-early-cancer-detection/) - In a recent review, researchers highlight how early cancer detection could be revolutionize by liquid biopsy, a minimally invasive diagnostic tool...
- [Collaborations](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/collaborations/) - Organisations and companies that work with Immunopaedia to realise our objectives of developing and disseminating Immunology education and knowledge world-wide. International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) The International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) is an umbrella organization for many of the regional and national societies of immunology throughout the world. The IUIS contributes to the
- [How Salmonella Outsmarts the Body's Iron Defence](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-salmonella-outsmarts-the-bodys-iron-defence/) - New research reveals that Salmonella bacteria actively seek out and exploit iron-rich niches within immune cells to continue proliferating—even under immune pressure...
- [The Role of Vegan Diets in Cardiovascular Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-role-of-vegan-diets-in-cardiovascular-health/) - As cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain a leading cause of mortality worldwide, dietary interventions have gained prominence in preventive health.
- [mRNA Vaccines as Malaria Transmission-Blocking Agents A New Frontier](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mrna-vaccines-as-malaria-transmission-blocking-agents-a-new-frontier/) - The immune responses triggered by these mRNA vaccines proved to be more robust and persistent than traditional protein-protein conjugates in comparative studies
- [Deciphering the Immune Landscape in Malaria: Insights from Innate and Adaptive Responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/deciphering-the-immune-landscape-in-malaria-insights-from-innate-and-adaptive-responses/) - Immune response to malaria is essential for developing effective vaccines and treatment strategies through a dynamic interplay of innate and adaptive responses.
- [Oral Lichen Planus as a Precursor to Good Syndrome: A Rare Immunological Case](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/oral-lichen-planus-as-a-precursor-to-good-syndrome-a-rare-immunological-case/) - Oral Lichen Planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disorder characterized by white, lacy patches or painful erosions on the mucous membranes inside the mouth.
- [Protein Biomarkers in Osteoarthritis: New Insights into Knee Radiographic Osteoarthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/protein-biomarkers-in-osteoarthritis-new-insights-into-knee-radiographic-osteoarthritis/) - Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent and debilitating joint disease marked by the progressive degradation of cartilage, inflammation, and structural alterations.
- [SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Unvaccinated Children: Immune Response Differences Across Variants](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sars-cov-2-antibodies-in-unvaccinated-children-immune-response-differences-across-variants/) - This study underscores the importance of monitoring antibody dynamics in children and highlights the need for pediatric vaccination strategies
- [Radiographic Evaluation of Vascular Changes and Thoracic Patterns in Cats Infected with Immature Dirofilaria immitis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/radiographic-evaluation-of-vascular-changes-and-thoracic-patterns-in-cats-infected-with-immature-dirofilaria-immitis/) - This study assessed thoracic radiographic changes in cats from an endemic area to identify diagnostic markers of heartworm-associated respiratory disease (HARD)
- [Our Profile](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-profile/) - Our mission is to promote knowledge and research in the field of immunology world-wide. We create and host online courses in partnership with the IUIS and other bodies.
- [Targeting STING: A New Frontier in Alzheimer's Research](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-sting-a-new-frontier-in-alzheimers-research/) - Researchers have uncovered evidence implicating the immune system—specifically, a molecule called STING—in driving the brain inflammation and damage seen in Alzheimer’s...
- [Immunity to HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/immunity-to-hiv/) - Introduction HIV is a retrovirus and made of double stranded RNA enclosed within a glycosylated capsid Target cells for HIV are any cell expressing both CD4 and CCR5 or CXCR4 (chemokine receptors) HIV has evolved to use these receptors to infect the “central command” of the immune system and by so doing ultimately disables the
- [Basic Immunology of HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/basic-immunology-of-hiv/) - The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), classified as a retrovirus, belongs to the genus Lentivirus within the family of Retroviridae. It is the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It invades various immune cells such as the CD4+ T cells and monocytes. A decline in CD4+ T cell numbers below the critical level leads to loss of cell-mediated immunity. Consequently, the body
- [Gut Mucosal Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/gut-mucosal-immunity/) - The GI tract Periodontitis is a multifactorial chronic inflammatory disease associated with the accumulation of dental plaque (referred to as dental biofilm/biofilm), characterized by the progressive destruction of the supporting structures of the teeth, including the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. (Kwon et al., 2021) During inflammation, defense cells release certain endogenous biological molecules such
- [Antibody Structure and Classes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/antibody-structure-and-classes/) - History of Immunoglobulin Molecules Take a look at our Timeline - History of Immunoglobulin Molecules Immunoglobulin Structure The immunoglobulins are a family of glycoproteins. Each immunoglobulin has four polypeptide chains; two small chains (molecular weight of 22 kD) termed light chains (LCs) (Figure 1) and two more chains (55 kD) called heavy chains (HCs), connected
- [Thymic T Cell Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/thymic-t-cell-development/) - Background Tolerance is induced and maintained both centrally and peripherally, each with a non-redundant function in maintaining receptor diversity while curtailing self-reactivity It was observed more than 50 years ago that non-identical twin calves sharing a placenta do not react to each other’s erythrocytes, and it was hypothesised that in utero exposure rendered them tolerant
- [MHC & Antigen Presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/mhc-antigen-presentation/) - Background The MHC molecules are glycoproteins encoded in a large cluster of genes located on chromosome 6. They were first identified by their potent effect on the immune response to transplanted tissue (see later). For that reason, the gene complex was termed the ‘‘major histocompatibility complex.’’ MHC genes (called the H-2 complex in mice) were
- [Daylight and the Immune Clock: How Light Tunes Our Defenses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/daylight-and-the-immune-clock-how-light-tunes-our-defenses/) - 02 June, 2025ew research reveals that the immune system follows a daily rhythm, with heightened activity during the day...
- [Harnessing a Viral Trickster: How a Herpesvirus Might Boost Cancer Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/harnessing-a-viral-trickster-how-a-herpesvirus-might-boost-cancer-immunotherapy/) - In an unexpected twist, researchers are exploring how a virus known for causing disease might be repurposed to help fight cancer. Specifically, a herpesvirus...
- [Lucy Ochola](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/lucy-ochola/) - Dr Ochola is the Head of the Tropical and Infectious Diseases Department at the Institute of Primate Research, Kenya. Lucy’s work focuses on advancing research in malaria and co-infections. Dr Ochola is the KSI Secretary General and Vice-President of FAIS
- [Acetylcholine Tunes T Cell Fate in the Thymus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/acetylcholine-tunes-t-cell-fate-in-the-thymus/) - 28 May, 2025 A recent study unveils a non-neuronal role for acetylcholine (ACh) in shaping the T cell repertoire...
- [Maternal Selenium Levels Linked to Lower Risk of Strep Infections in Children](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/maternal-selenium-levels-linked-to-lower-risk-of-strep-infections-in-children/) - A new study reveals a potential link between maternal selenium levels during pregnancy and reduced risk of streptococcal infections in children...
- [Bone Metastases Revealed to Have Three Distinct Immune Archetypes Across Cancer Types](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/bone-metastases-revealed-to-have-three-distinct-immune-archetypes-across-cancer-types/) - A new study reveals the diverse immune landscapes of bone metastases using RNA sequencing...
- [A case of swollen hands](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/a-case-of-swollen-hands/) - Case study of swollen hands - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Post streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) and immunology of the disease.
- [A case of decreased joint function, fever and rash](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/a-case-of-decreased-joint-function-fever-and-rash/) - Case study of decreased joint function and rash - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) with immunology of the disease.
- [A 9 year old girl presents with body swelling, shortness of breath and backache](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/autoimmune-conditions/a-9-year-old-girl-presents-with-body-swelling-shortness-of-breath-and-backache/) - Case study of a 9 year old girl with body swelling and shortness of breath. Investigation and diagnosis of viral myocarditis with discussion of immunology of disease
- [A case of fever and general malaise](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/a-case-of-fever-and-general-malaise/) - Case study of fever and general malaise - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Acute retroviral syndrome in HIV patients with the immunology of disease.
- [Yellow Fever Vaccine Study Reveals Key to Rapid and Long-Lasting Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/yellow-fever-vaccine-study-reveals-key-to-rapid-and-long-lasting-immunity/) - A new study provides important insights into how the highly effective YF17D yellow fever vaccine activates the human immune system—offering valuable clues for designing new, fast-acting vaccines...
- [Rogue Immune Cells Reveal Why Gluten-Free Diets Fail in Some Coeliac Patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rogue-immune-cells-reveal-why-gluten-free-diets-fail-in-some-coeliac-patients/) - New research has uncovered why a subset of coeliac disease patients continue to suffer debilitating symptoms despite adhering strictly to a gluten-free diet...
- [Targeting TYK2 Shows Promise in Preventing Type 1 Diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-tyk2-shows-promise-in-preventing-type-1-diabetes/) - A new proposes a promising strategy to protect insulin-producing cells and potentially delay or prevent Type 1 diabetes...
- [Immune Clues to Long-Term HIV Remission](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-clues-to-long-term-hiv-remission/) - In a new study, researchers have identified specific immunogenetic traits linked to long-term control of HIV in people who stop antiretroviral therapy...
- [From Gut to Joints: How Friendly Microbes May Trigger Autoimmunity in Rheumatoid Arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/from-gut-to-joints-how-friendly-microbes-may-trigger-autoimmunity-in-rheumatoid-arthritis/) - A new study sheds light on how gut-residing microbes may reprogram immune cells and trigger systemic autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis (RA)...
- [B Cell Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/b-cell-development/) - Activation of B cells There are two main immune responses that can drive the activation of resting B-cells, and these are termed as T-cell dependent and independent immune responses. Resting B cells become activated by antigen via the BCR and/or by microbiological side products (pathogen associated molecular patterns; PAMPs) via their toll like receptors (TLR4,
- [Why Cats Outlive Dogs: Study Links Mammalian Longevity to Brain Size and Immune Gene Expansion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-cats-outlive-dogs-study-links-mammalian-longevity-to-brain-size-and-immune-gene-expansion/) - A new study provides insights into longevity - larger brains and expanded immune systems are strongly linked to longer lifespans in mammals...
- [Immuno-Cambodia 2025 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/immuno-cambodia-2025-introduction/) - Immune Responses to Arbovirus Infections from a One Health Perspective November 24-29th, 2025 Empress Angkor Resort and Spa, Siem Reap, Cambodia ABOUT IMMUNO-CAMBODIA 2025 This course will provide an in-depth exploration of the interactions between arboviruses, their vectors (mosquitoes, ticks), and vertebrate hosts. We will delve into host-pathogen interactions and the innate and adaptive
- [IUIS-PASTEUR Immuno-Cambodia 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cambodia-2025/)
- [IUIS-ALACI-ACAAI Immuno-Colombia 2021](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-colombia-2021/)
- [IUIS-FAIS Immuno-Algeria 2020](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/iuis-fais-immuno-algeria-2020/)
- [IUIS-FAIS Immuno-Ethiopia 2020](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/iuis-fais-immuno-ethiopia-2020/)
- [IUIS-FAIS-STI Immuno-Tunisia 2021](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-tunisia-2021/)
- [IUIS-Immunopaedia-ALACI Immuno-Cuba 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cuba-2022/)
- [IUIS-ALACI-ASCAI2 Immuno-Argentina 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/)
- [IUIS-FAIS-SANTHE-ISZ  Immuno-Zambia 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/)
- [IUIS-SMI-FAIS Immuno-Morocco 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/)
- [IUIS-FIMSA-IIS Immuno-India 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/)
- [IUIS-ALACI-SPI Immuno-Peru 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/)
- [IUIS-ALACI-SMI-ASOCHIN Immuno-Chile 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/)
- [IUIS-SMI-ALACI Immuno-Mexico 2024](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/)
- [IUIS-FAIS-SAIS Immuno-South Africa 2024](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/)
- [IUIS Immuno-India 2024 Workshop](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2024-workshop/)
- [Immuno-Peru 2025 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-peru-2025/immuno-peru-2025-introduction/) - INTERPLAY BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT & THE IMMUNE SYSTEM October 5-11th, 2025 Hotel Señorial 567 José Gonzales, Miraflores 15074, Lima, Perú ABOUT IMMUNOPERU 2025 This IUIS-ALACI-PSI course will bring together a diverse group of students, immunologists and experts to share their distinct perspectives, skills and expertise. It will focus on a variety of endemic and emerging
- [Fundamentals of Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/fundamentals-of-immunology/) - Generalities of innate immunity The innate immune system is operative on initial and subsequent encounters with foreignness and instructs the type of adaptive immune response that follows. One major feature of the innate immune system is that it is taken to be nonspecific, in the sense that anything the body identifies as foreign or non-self
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/grant-writing/) - Group Presentations
- [Malaria-Driven Cancer: How Plasmodium falciparum Triggers Burkitt Lymphoma in Children](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/malaria-driven-cancer-how-plasmodium-falciparum-triggers-burkitt-lymphoma-in-children/) - A recent study published has revealed the molecular link between malaria infection and Burkitt lymphoma (BL)...
- [Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/introduction/) - AFRICAN IMMUNOLOGY OF PARASITES, PATHOGENS, AND PATHOGENESIS (AFriBOP) AfrIBOP is a week-long course that targets PhD students and early postdocs interested in the interaction between the immune system and pathogens – including how this underlies the pathogenesis of a wide range of infectious and non-communicable diseases. The course constitutes intensive, interactive learning sessions and simulations
- [Fundamentals of Pathogens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/fundamentals-of-pathogens/) - Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic infection, caused by an intracellular parasite, the protozoan Plasmodium spp. It affects most tropical areas around the world where mosquitos of the Anopheles genus are located. Around 200 to 400 million people are infected each year, resulting in approximately 400,000 deaths annually. It typically causes morbidity and mortality in infants and young children
- [Vaccines and Clinical Approches](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/vaccines-and-clinical-approches/) - Vaccine Successes Vaccines are able to eradicate diseases. One of the best examples of this is Smallpox. Smallpox was the first successful vaccine to be developed in 1796. A global vaccination program which started in 1967 led to the eradication of the disease as there have been no reported smallpox cases since 1977. Polio is
- [Non-Communicable Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2025/non-communicable-diseases/) - What is Autoimmunity? The immune system normally works to defend the body and eliminate infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and other invading microbes. If a person has an autoimmune disease, the immune system mistakenly attacks self, targeting the cells,tissues, and organs of a person’s own body. Break in “Tolerance” There are more than 80 different
- [Novel Autoantibody Linked to Poor Prognosis in Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-autoantibody-linked-to-poor-prognosis-in-idiopathic-interstitial-pneumonia/) - Recent studies have identified anti-IFI16 antibodies as a novel biomarker associated with specific IIP cases, with potential prognostic and clinical relevance.
- [Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) as Biomarkers for Differentiating Tuberculosis from Pneumonia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/40068-2/) - This study investigates myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) as a potential marker for early discrimination between TPE and PPE.
- [Machine Learning and Immune Phenotyping in Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/machine-learning-and-immune-phenotyping-in-community-acquired-pneumonia-cap/) - Community-acquired pneumonia varies widely; this study uses machine learning to identify immune phenotypes to improve risk stratification and patient outcomes.
- [Cancer Outcomes and Risks after Immunotherapy-Associated Diabetes Diagnosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cancer-outcomes-and-risks-after-immunotherapy-associated-diabetes-diagnosis/) - 18 May, 2025 A retrospective cohort of 43 CPI-DM patients treated at UCSF was examined. Patients were divided into groups based on CPI therapy continuation: those who resumed within 90 days, those who delayed resumption, and those who permanently discontinued treatment. Researchers analysed irAE occurrences, cancer progression, and overall survival, using statistical models, including Fisher's exact tests, Kaplan-Meier methods, and Cox regression.
- [Managing Multiple Sclerosis in the Elderly: Challenges and New Strategies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/managing-multiple-sclerosis-in-the-elderly-challenges-and-new-strategies/) - Treating multiple sclerosis in the elderly is challenging as immunosenescence, which reduces disease-modifying therapy effectiveness and increases health risks
- [Unilateral Cortical Autoimmune Encephalitis: Insights and Comparisons to Rasmussen's Encephalitis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unilateral-cortical-autoimmune-encephalitis-insights-and-comparisons-to-rasmussens-encephalitis/) - Autoimmune encephalitis is brain inflammation causing seizures, cognitive decline, and movement issues; it's a severe and complex neurological condition.
- [High-Efficacy Therapies in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: Shifting Towards Early Intervention](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/high-efficacy-therapies-in-relapsing-remitting-multiple-sclerosis-shifting-towards-early-intervention/) - Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease causing nerve damage. Early treatment in relapsing-remitting MS is key to preventing long-term decline.
- [Predicted T-Cell Epitopes of Respiratory Syncytial Virus: A Breakthrough in Vaccine Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/predicted-t-cell-epitopes-of-respiratory-syncytial-virus-a-breakthrough-in-vaccine-development/) - RSV is a major cause of LRTIs in high-risk groups. Current vaccines offer limited protection, highlighting the need for a broad, cross-population solution.
- [Development of a Dietary Index for Gut Microbiota: The Role of Coffee and Other Foods](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/development-of-a-dietary-index-for-gut-microbiota-the-role-of-coffee-and-other-foods/) - Coffee supports gut health by boosting beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, helping prevent dysbiosis and related chronic diseases.
- [Improved Survival in Hard-to-Treat T/NK-Cell Lymphomas with Targeted Therapy Sequencing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/improved-survival-in-hard-to-treat-t-nk-cell-lymphomas-with-targeted-therapy-sequencing/) - A study offers promising guidance for treating relapsed/refractory (R/R) mature T and natural killer (NK)-cell lymphomas (TNKL)—a group of aggressive blood cancers with poor prognoses and no current standard of care...
- [New Compound Blocks Immune Overreaction in Hard-to-Treat Conditions Like Asthma, IBS, and Chronic Itch](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-compound-blocks-immune-overreaction-in-hard-to-treat-conditions-like-asthma-ibs-and-chronic-itch/) - Researchers have identified a bioactive compound that may offer relief for people suffering from conditions marked by excessive immune responses—including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), chronic itching, asthma, and migraine...
- [Existing Drug Shows Promise for Reviving Immune Cells in Sepsis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/existing-drug-shows-promise-for-reviving-immune-cells-in-sepsis/) - Scientists have discovered that an existing drug, interferon beta, can rejuvenate immune cells weakened during sepsis...
- [New Chemical Probe Sheds Light on How TB Evades the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-chemical-probe-sheds-light-on-how-tb-evades-the-immune-system/) - In a recent study scientists have developed a novel chemical probe to investigate a crucial part of the TB bacterium’s complex outer coat — a step that could lead to new therapeutic strategies against TB...
- [Immunoproteasome as a Companion in Cancer Immunotherapy: The Role of Coffee](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immunoproteasome-as-a-companion-in-cancer-immunotherapy-the-role-of-coffee/) - Coffee's bioactive compounds, especially phenolics, plays a role in immune modulation, potentially enhancing the effects of immunotherapy.
- [The Relationship Between Microbial Communities in Coffee Fermentation and Aroma with Metabolite Attributes of Finished Products](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-relationship-between-microbial-communities-in-coffee-fermentation-and-aroma-with-metabolite-attributes-of-finished-products/) - Microbial communities shape coffee's flavor and aroma during fermentation. This study links microbial diversity to key biochemical traits in Arabica coffee.
- [Myasthenia Gravis Reveal - Why Patients Respond Differently to Treatment?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/myasthenia-gravis-reveal-why-patients-respond-differently-to-treatment/) - Researchers have uncovered a surprising diversity in how the autoimmune disease myasthenia gravis (MG) disrupts nerve-to-muscle communication...
- [Tomabu Adjobimey](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/tomabu-adjobimey/) - Associate Professor of Immunology and Microbiology under the African and Malagasy Council for Higher Education (CAMES). He earned his PhD in Immunology from the University of Bonn in Germany, where he served as a research group leader. He founded ImmunoScience Solutions...
- [New IgE Antibody Treatment Revives Immune Response in Ovarian Cancer Patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-ige-antibody-treatment-revives-immune-response-in-ovarian-cancer-patients/) - Researchers have revealed how a novel IgE-based antibody therapy reactivates immune cells in patients with ovarian cancer, showing promise for a new class of cancer immunotherapy...
- [Calming Brain Immune Cells May Slow Alzheimer’s Progression](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/calming-brain-immune-cells-may-slow-alzheimers-progression/) - Researchers have discovered that enhancing a natural calming signal in the brain's immune system may prevent or reduce the inflammation that drives neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s disease...
- [Early Immune Programming: Mild Infections Trigger T Cell Exhaustion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/early-immune-programming-mild-infections-trigger-t-cell-exhaustion/) - 14 April, 2025Using high-resolution immunological profiling, the research team found that even during early, moderate stages of infection, the immune system produces a variety of T cell subsets...
- [Maternal Inflammation Linked to Delayed Infant Brain Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/maternal-inflammation-linked-to-delayed-infant-brain-development/) - A new study has revealed a biological link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy and delayed neurodevelopment in infants...
- [New Research Suggests Single Virus May Cause Kawasaki Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-research-suggests-single-virus-may-cause-kawasaki-disease/) - In a new study, scientists have uncovered strong evidence that a single, yet-unidentified respiratory virus is the likely cause of Kawasaki disease...
- [Cord Blood-Derived NK Cell Therapy Shows Remarkable Efficacy in Refractory Lymphoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cord-blood-derived-nk-cell-therapy-shows-remarkable-efficacy-in-refractory-lymphoma/) - In a major advancement for cell-based cancer therapies, researchers at have demonstrated that a novel natural killer (NK) cell therapy, pre-complexed with a bispecific antibody called AFM13 (acimtamig)...
- [Case of enlarged hard tongue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/malignancies/case-of-enlarged-hard-tongue/) - Case of enlarged hard tongue - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Multiple myeloma and study of immunology of the disease and malignancy of B cells.
- [Modulation of Metabolic and Immunoregulatory Pathways in the Gut Transcriptome of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.) After Early Nutritional Programming with Plant-Based Diet](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/modulation-of-metabolic-and-immunoregulatory-pathways-in-the-gut-transcriptome-of-atlantic-salmon-salmo-salar-l-after-early-nutritional-programming-with-plant-based-diet/) - A study explored how early plant-based diets shape gut metabolism and immunity in Atlantic salmon, aiding health and growth in sustainable aquaculture.
- [Evaluation of the Effect of Roasting and Digestion on Biological Activity of Coffee Compounds](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/evaluation-of-the-effect-of-roasting-and-digestion-on-biological-activity-of-coffee-compounds/) - Coffee contains bioactive compounds like phenolic acids, which may help protect against oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer.
- [Plant-Based Dietary Patterns and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/plant-based-dietary-patterns-and-incidence-of-type-2-diabetes/) - A large study found that healthy plant-based diets reduce Type 2 diabetes risk, while unhealthy plant-based diets increase the risk.
- [Adherence to Healthy and Unhealthy Plant-Based Diets and the Risk of Gout](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/adherence-to-healthy-and-unhealthy-plant-based-diets-and-the-risk-of-gout/) - Gout is an inflammatory arthritis that results from the accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints, which can cause significant discomfort.
- [Unveiling the Epigenetic Impact of Vegan vs. Omnivorous Diets on Aging: Insights from the Twins Nutrition Study](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unveiling-the-epigenetic-impact-of-vegan-vs-omnivorous-diets-on-aging-insights-from-the-twins-nutrition-study/) - The Twins Nutrition Study (TwiNS) used epigenetic clocks to reveal how vegan and omnivorous diets impact biological aging by analyzing DNA methylation in twins.
- [Elexacaftor-Tezacaftor-Ivacaftor Treatment and Depression-Related Events in Cystic Fibrosis Patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/elexacaftor-tezacaftor-ivacaftor-treatment-and-depression-related-events-in-cystic-fibrosis-patients/) - ELX/TEZ/IVA revolutionized CF treatment, but concerns arose about depression risks. A study reviewed clinical and post-market data to assess its impact on pwCF.
- [The Immune System Can Target Latent Brain Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immune-system-can-target-latent-brain-infections/) - Researchers have found that the immune system can recognize and respond to the latent stage of Toxoplasma gondii...
- [New Technique Rapidly Boosts Anti-Inflammatory Cells to Heal Heart Attacks](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-technique-rapidly-boosts-anti-inflammatory-cells-to-heal-heart-attacks/) - In a recent paper, researchers have developed a novel immunotherapy technique that dramatically improved healing after heart attacks in mice by accelerating the body’s production of anti-inflammatory immune cells...
- [Fatty Acids Fuel Immune Suppression and Treatment Resistance in Triple Negative Breast Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fatty-acids-fuel-immune-suppression-and-treatment-resistance-in-triple-negative-breast-cancer/) - A new study has uncovered how triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) can evade therapy by manipulating fat metabolism—not only within tumour cells but also in nearby immune cells...
- [Fusion Protein Strategy Unlocks New Path to Monoclonal Antibody Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fusion-protein-strategy-unlocks-new-path-to-monoclonal-antibody-development/) - In a recent study researchers reveal a new technique: fusing protein complexes together to stabilize them during immunisation and unlock a new generation of highly specific monoclonal antibodies...
- [Mehrnaz Mesdaghi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/mehrnaz-mesdaghi/) - Dr Mehrnaz Mesdaghi earned her MD and PhD degrees from Tehran University and is currently an Associate Professor of Immunology at Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran. She is the founder and director of the Allergy and Primary Immunodeficiency Lab in Mofid Children's Hospital...
- [Blood Stem Cells Suppress Immune Responses with PD-L2, Offering Promise for Safer Transplants](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/surprising-discovery-blood-stem-cells-suppress-immune-responses-with-pd-l2-offering-promise-for-safer-transplants/) - In a new study, researchers have uncovered an unexpected immune-regulatory role for blood stem cells, a finding that could reshape how stem cell transplants are approached in the treatment of leukemia and other blood-related conditions...
- [A New Strategy for Tackling Glioblastoma: Targeting ZNF638 to Boost Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-strategy-for-tackling-glioblastoma-targeting-znf638-to-boost-immunotherapy/) - Scientists have discovered that suppressing a protein called ZNF638 can trigger an antiviral immune response in glioblastoma tumours, making them more vulnerable to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) ...
- [New Study Links Inflammation and Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction to Down Syndrome Regression Disorder](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-study-links-inflammation-and-blood-brain-barrier-dysfunction-to-down-syndrome-regression-disorder/) - A new study has revealed compelling evidence of blood-brain barrier dysfunction and neuroinflammation in individuals with Down Syndrome Regression Disorder (DSRD)...
- [Neural Mechanisms Underlying Depressive-Like States Associated with Social Status Loss](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/neural-mechanisms-underlying-depressive-like-states-associated-with-social-status-loss/) - 23 March, 2025 A study published in Cell explored this phenomenon using a novel, non-violent behavioral paradigm in mice, offering valuable insights into the neural mechanisms that underlie depression triggered by social status decline. This study is particularly relevant given the well-established association between downward social mobility and depression...
- [AfriBop 2024](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/)
- [12th IDA 2025](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/)
- [Scientists Uncover How Stem Cells Evade Immune Attack](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/scientists-uncover-how-stem-cells-evade-immune-attack/) - A new study published has revealed the sophisticated strategies stem cells use to avoid detection and destruction by the immune system...
- [How Trypanosomes Outsmart the Immune System: New Study Reveals the Molecular Tricks Behind Antigen Switching](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-trypanosomes-outsmart-the-immune-system-new-study-reveals-the-molecular-tricks-behind-antigen-switching/) - A new study has shed light on how certain pathogens, like Trypanosoma brucei—the cause of African sleeping sickness, manage to stay one step ahead of the immune system...
- [Targeting a Mosquito’s Weak Spot: A New Strategy for Malaria Control](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-a-mosquitos-weak-spot-a-new-strategy-for-malaria-control/) - A newly identified weakness in Anopheles mosquitoes—the species responsible for most malaria transmissions worldwide—could pave the way for more effective malaria control, according to new research...
- [Boosting the Brain’s Own Defences: A New Approach to Alzheimer’s Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/boosting-the-brains-own-defences-a-new-approach-to-alzheimers-treatment/) - A new study suggests, instead of relying solely on drugs to clear plaques, researchers propose enhancing the brain’s own immune cells to aid in combatting Alzheimer's disease...
- [Trained Immunity May Worsen Inflammatory Bone Loss](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/trained-immunity-may-worsen-inflammatory-bone-loss/) - Scientists have made a key discovery: training the innate immune system can sometimes exacerbate bone loss in chronic inflammatory diseases like periodontitis and arthritis...
- [New Target Identified to Prevent Herpes Reactivation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-target-identified-to-prevent-herpes-reactivation/) - Researchers have uncovered a surprising mechanism behind herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) reactivation, providing a potential new target to prevent cold sores and genital herpes outbreaks...
- [New Mechanism Behind HIV Maturation Uncovered by Researchers](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-mechanism-behind-hiv-maturation-uncovered-by-researchers/) - Scientists have identified a key mechanism in the life cycle of HIV-1, revealing how the virus transitions from an immature state into an infectious form...
- [Immunopaedia collaborates with CIMA Health Academy to Advance Global Immunization Education](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cima-immunopaedia-collaboration/) - 4 March 2025This collaboration unites CIMA Health Academy’s CPD-certified vaccination training with Immunopaedia’s comprehensive immunology education platform.
- [Engineered Blood Vessel Cells Enhance Islet Transplants, Reversing Diabetes in Preclinical Study](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/engineered-blood-vessel-cells-enhance-islet-transplants-reversing-diabetes-in-preclinical-study/) - A new approach to islet transplantation has demonstrated long-term diabetes reversal in mice by incorporating engineered blood vessel-forming cells...
- [Omalizumab: A Promising Treatment for Multiple Food Allergies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/omalizumab-a-promising-treatment-for-multiple-food-allergies/) - Omalizumab helps manage food allergies, lowers accidental exposure risk, and enhances life quality for those with severe allergies.
- [Sepsis Survivors Call for the Development of a European Sepsis Plan](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sepsis-survivors-call-for-the-development-of-a-european-sepsis-plan/) - Despite the significant toll that sepsis takes on health systems, it remains severely under-prioritized in Europe.
- [Clonal Associations in RA- Uncovering Lymphocyte Interactions in Synovial Tissue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/clonal-associations-in-ra-uncovering-lymphocyte-interactions-in-synovial-tissue/) - The study highlights the need to target immune cells in RA, focusing on antigen presentation and cytokine signaling for better treatment strategies.
- [Iron Overload and Macrophage Ferroptosis- A New Mechanism Driving Rheumatoid Arthritis Progression](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/iron-overload-and-macrophage-ferroptosis-a-new-mechanism-driving-rheumatoid-arthritis-progression/) - Innflammation is a hallmark of RA, the role of iron overload and ferroptosis in this process is only beginning to be understood.
- [Viral Infections and Mental Health in the Post-Pandemic Era](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/viral-infections-and-mental-health-in-the-post-pandemic-era/) - 28 March, 2025 Frontiers in Psychiatry, researchers explored the relationship between viral infections, including COVID-19, and mental health outcomes during the post-pandemic era. This research underscores the intricate connection between physical health and mental well-being, particularly in the context of viral infections like SARS-CoV-2 and HIV, which can exacerbate psychological stressors.
- [Association of Breastfeeding with Mental Disorders in Mother and Child A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/association-of-breastfeeding-with-mental-disorders-in-mother-and-child-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis/) - A meta-analysis examined breastfeeding's link to mental health, assessing depression and anxiety risks in mothers and children.
- [Abatacept-A New Frontier in Preventing Rheumatoid Arthritis Onset](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/abatacept-a-new-frontier-in-preventing-rheumatoid-arthritis-onset/) - The ARIAA study shows Abatacept may stop early RA, marking a breakthrough in treatment and potentially changing disease management.
- [T-Cell Nomogram and Subtype Classification: A New Era in Rheumatoid Arthritis Diagnostics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cell-nomogram-and-subtype-classification-a-new-era-in-rheumatoid-arthritis-diagnostics/) - Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation of the joints, leading to pain, swelling, and joint damage.
- [The Time to Address the Antibiotic Pipeline and Access Crisis is Now](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-time-to-address-the-antibiotic-pipeline-and-access-crisis-is-now/) - Antimicrobial resistance is a major global health threat, causing over 1.14 million deaths annually due to drug-resistant infections.
- [Chijioke Umunnakwe](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/chijioke-umunnakwe/) - CJ earned his PhD in Genetics and Bioinformatics from Iowa State University, USA in 2014 and completed a postdoctoral fellowship at the NIH in 2020, focusing on HIV molecular virology. He is currently a Senior Research Scientist at Ndlovu Research Department in rural Limpopo, South Africa.
- [Mitochondrial Transfer Identified as a Key Mechanism of Cancer Immune Evasion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mitochondrial-transfer-identified-as-a-key-mechanism-of-cancer-immune-evasion/) - A new study has uncovered a novel immune evasion mechanism in cancer, revealing how tumour cells transfer mitochondria with mutated DNA to immune cells, weakening their ability to fight cancer...
- [2023 Guidelines for Managing Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis: Protecting Bone Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/2023-guidelines-for-managing-glucocorticoid-induced-osteoporosis-protecting-bone-health/) - Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is a serious side effect of long-term GC therapy, commonly used to treat autoimmune diseases and other conditions.
- [Gut Microbiome and Metabolome Alterations Linked to CTLA4 Deficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/gut-microbiome-and-metabolome-alterations-linked-to-ctla4-deficiency/) - A recent study has unveiled distinct gut microbiome and metabolome signatures associated with CTLA4 deficiency, a genetically acquired immune checkpoint disorder...
- [Course Applications](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/course-applications/) - Physical Courses available:
- [New Insights into Neutrophilic Asthma: A Potential Path to Better Treatments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-into-neutrophilic-asthma-a-potential-path-to-better-treatments/) - A recent study sheds light on the immune mechanisms driving neutrophilic asthma and introduces one of the first mouse models designed to mimic the condition in humans...
- [Beta-Glucan: A Fungal Shield Against Flu-Related Lung Damage](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/beta-glucan-a-fungal-shield-against-flu-related-lung-damage/) - A new study has revealed that beta-glucan, a component found in all fungi, can protect against influenza-related lung damage, enhancing immune resilience and improving survival rates...
- [Secrets of Heart Regeneration: How Newborn Immune Cells Repair Cardiac Tissue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/secrets-of-heart-regeneration-how-newborn-immune-cells-repair-cardiac-tissue/) - A new study has uncovered a key difference in how immune cells contribute to heart tissue regeneration in newborns versus adults after a heart attack...
- [Unravelling the Immune-Tumour Cross-Talk in Glioblastoma: A New Target for Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unravelling-the-immune-tumour-cross-talk-in-glioblastoma-a-new-target-for-treatment/) - A new study has identified a crucial interaction between glioblastoma stem cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), which fuels tumour growth and immune evasion...
- [Ambassador of the Month - 2024](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/2024-ambassador-of-the-month/) - November 2024 Courage Chandipwisa is invested in advancing vaccine efficacy, particularly for infectious diseases that impact both animals and humans. Courage holds a MSc in Vaccine Production and Quality Control, he is a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, and a researcher in infectious disease. He is passionate about discovering how immune responses can be optimized for
- [How Gut Immune Cells Strategically Position Themselves to Combat Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-gut-immune-cells-strategically-position-themselves-to-combat-infections/) - New research has revealed a surprising adaptation in the immune system: tissue-resident memory CD8 T cells (TRM cells) in the small intestine shift their location to strategically intercept infections before they spread deeper into vulnerable tissues...
- [Adverse Food Reactions- Physiological and Ecological Perspectives](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/adverse-food-reactions-physiological-and-ecological-perspectives/) - Adverse food reactions, including allergies, intolerances, and celiac disease, are increasingly common, affecting many in today’s society.
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/grant-writing/) - Please see the following presentation
- [Targeting c-Rel and TLR7: A New Pathway for Psoriasis Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-c-rel-and-tlr7-a-new-pathway-for-psoriasis-treatment/) - A new study has identified a key protein, NF-kB c-Rel, that plays a significant role in exacerbating psoriasis, an inflammatory skin disease affecting millions worldwide...
- [LIM-domain-only 4 (LMO4) – enhancing immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/lim-domain-only-4-lmo4-enhancing-immunotherapy/) - In a recent study, researchers have unveiled a novel approach to enhance the efficacy of CD8+ T cell-based immunotherapies against cancer...
- [Ultrasound-Guided Microbubbles: A Novel Approach to Reactivating T Cells for Cancer Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ultrasound-guided-microbubbles-a-novel-approach-to-reactivating-t-cells-for-cancer-immunotherapy/) - Researchers have developed an innovative method to enhance cancer immunotherapy using ultrasound-guided microbubbles—a technology already widely employed in medical imaging and drug delivery...
- [Beyond Bacteria: The Growing Threat of Antifungal Resistance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/beyond-bacteria-the-growing-threat-of-antifungal-resistance/) - A recent report has focused on the increased threat of antifungal resistance and discussed approaches to tackling this problem...
- [Immunity to COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/immunity-to-covid-19/) - SARS-CoV-2 origin and transmission Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) first identified in December 2019, is the etiological agent of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 has zoonotic origin, and shares genomic similarity with other zoonotic viruses responsible for SARS (SARS-CoV-1) and MERS (EMC/2012 coronavirus) Genomic analysis SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated that the virus has a receptor
- [Yanet Valdez Tejeira](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2025/yanet-valdez-tejeira/) - January 2025Dr Valdez is deeply committed to equity, diversity, and inclusion in STEM fields. Her dedication to science and advocacy has earned her recognition as a “Women Leader of the Americas” and a nominee for the Women of Distinction Award.
- [Immune Cells Take Center Stage in Blood Sugar Regulation: Insights Into Neuroimmune-Hormonal Circuits](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-cells-take-center-stage-in-blood-sugar-regulation-insights-into-neuroimmune-hormonal-circuits/) - A recent study has uncovered a surprising role for immune cells in regulating blood sugar levels during periods of low energy, such as fasting or exercise...
- [New Perspectives on Food Protein-Induced Enterocolitis Syndrome (FPIES)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-perspectives-on-food-protein-induced-enterocolitis-syndrome-fpies/) - Food Protein-Induced Enterocolitis Syndrome (FPIES) is a non-IgE-mediated food allergy, which predominantly affects infants but can also impact adults.
- [L-Arginine Metabolism Inhibits Arthritis and Inflammatory Bone Loss](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/l-arginine-metabolism-inhibits-arthritis-and-inflammatory-bone-loss/) - 22 February, 2025This study underscores the therapeutic potential of L-arginine in treating inflammatory arthritis and preventing bone destruction. Its ability to reprogram osteoclast metabolism offers a novel approach to managing RA, particularly in reducing osteoclast-mediated bone loss.
- [Treat-to-Target in Giant Cell Arteritis & Polymyalgia Rheumatica- A New Approach for Improved Outcomes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/treat-to-target-in-giant-cell-arteritis-polymyalgia-rheumatica-a-new-approach-for-improved-outcomes/) - Giant cell arteritis (GCA) and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) are inflammatory conditions that affect older individuals, often causing significant morbidity.
- [Interferon-Gamma and Bone Remodelling- New Perspective in Osteoporosis Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/interferon-gamma-and-bone-remodelling-a-new-perspective-in-osteoporosis-treatment/) - Osteoporosis affects 200M+ globally, reducing bone density and altering microstructure, making bones fragile and increasing fracture risk.
- [Prevention of Respiratory Virus Transmission by Resident Memory CD8+ T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prevention-of-respiratory-virus-transmission-by-resident-memory-cd8-t-cells/) - TRM CD8+ T cells prevent respiratory virus spread by curbing transmission, even without antibodies, showcasing their vital protective role.
- [Post-Polio Syndrome Is Not a Dysimmune Condition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/post-polio-syndrome-is-not-a-dysimmune-condition/) - Post-polio syndrome (PPS) is a condition that affects polio survivors, often manifesting decades after the initial infection.
- [Innate Immune Memory and Post-Stroke Cardiac Dysfunction New Therapeutic Pathways](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/innate-immune-memory-and-post-stroke-cardiac-dysfunction-new-therapeutic-pathways/) - The study used both human stroke patients and animal models to investigate how brain injury leads to prolonged immune activation.
- [Utility of Food Allergy Thresholds: An Insight into Better Management](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/utility-of-food-allergy-thresholds-an-insight-into-better-management/) - Food allergies are a significant public health issue, with individuals experiencing a range of reactions, from mild discomfort to life-threatening anaphylaxis.
- [Linking Psoriasis and Gut Health: Study Reveals Hidden Intestinal Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/linking-psoriasis-and-gut-health-study-reveals-hidden-intestinal-inflammation/) - New research has uncovered a significant connection between psoriasis and intestinal inflammation, shedding light on why individuals with this chronic skin condition often experience gastrointestinal issues and are at a higher risk for Crohn’s disease...
- [Precision Medicine Tool Offers Hope for Tailored Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/precision-medicine-tool-offers-hope-for-tailored-rheumatoid-arthritis-treatments/) - A recent study has introduced a breakthrough method in precision medicine that could revolutionize treatment selection for rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases...
- [Discovery of B Cell Mutations Sheds Light on Viral Triggers of Autoimmune Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/discovery-of-b-cell-mutations-sheds-light-on-viral-triggers-of-autoimmune-diseases/) - Scientists have uncovered a new mechanism by which viral infections can trigger autoimmune diseases, overturning a long-standing theory...
- [Reaching Communities Through Food Allergy Advocacy, Research, and Education](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/reaching-communities-through-food-allergy-advocacy-research-and-education/) - In research, recent breakthroughs in peanut allergy prevention and oral immunotherapy hold promise for reducing FA burdens.
- [RNA-Binding Protein TTP: A Key Regulator in Allergic Inflammation and Basophil Function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rna-binding-protein-ttp-a-key-regulator-in-allergic-inflammation-and-basophil-function/) - A recent study has revealed the pivotal role of tristetraprolin (TTP), an RNA-binding protein, in controlling inflammatory responses in basophils, a type of immune cell central to allergic reactions...
- [Memory and Immune System Parallels: Insights into Adaptive Immunity and B-cell Responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/memory-and-immune-system-parallels-insights-into-adaptive-immunity-and-b-cell-responses/) - A recent review explores interesting parallels, shedding light on the adaptive immune system's memory mechanisms and how they mirror cognitive memory processes...
- [RSV Vaccines: Efficacy in Immunocompromised Older Adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rsv-vaccines-show-variable-efficacy-in-immunocompromised-older-adults/) - A recent study highlights that older adults with weakened immune systems, particularly organ transplant recipients on immunosuppressive medications, exhibit a weaker and more variable response to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccines compared to their peers with normal immune function...
- [Threatened by Complex Food Security Issues A Call for One Health Research Partnerships](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/threatened-by-complex-food-security-issues-a-call-for-one-health-research-partnerships/) - Food security threats can arise in one part of the world and quickly spread to others, impacting human, animal, and environmental health.
- [Food Insecurity, Inflammation, and Immune Function Among Older US Adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/food-insecurity-inflammation-and-immune-function-among-older-us-adults-2/) - Food insecurity affects nearly 1 in 4 U.S. households with adults aged 65+, posing serious public health challenges for older populations.
- [Autophagy and Apoptosis in Rabies Virus Replication](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/autophagy-and-apoptosis-in-rabies-virus-replication/) - RABV hijacks autophagy, a process maintaining cellular homeostasis, to enhance its replication, turning a protective mechanism into a tool for viral propagation
- [Immuno-MRI Advancing Stroke Diagnosis and Prognosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immuno-mri-advancing-stroke-diagnosis-and-prognosis/) - Stroke is a major cause of death and disability, with 85% being ischemic. Accurate diagnosis and predicting progression remain critical challenges.
- [Long-Term Stroke Survival The Role of TyG-BMI](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/long-term-stroke-survival-the-role-of-tyg-bmi/) - Stroke is a major global health issue, causing high mortality and disability. Understanding factors influencing outcomes is vital as populations continue to age
- [Ex-Ante Impact of Peste des Petits Ruminants Control on Socioeconomic Indicators in Senegal](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ex-ante-impact-of-peste-des-petits-ruminants-control-on-socioeconomic-indicators-in-senegal/) - Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a viral disease of sheep & goats. Vaccination is crucial for its control and eradication, including in regions like Senegal.
- [Food Insecurity, Inflammation, and Immune Function Among Older US Adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/food-insecurity-inflammation-and-immune-function-among-older-us-adults/) - Food insecurity affects nearly 1 in 4 U.S. households with adults aged 65+, posing serious public health challenges for older populations.
- [Asparagine Metabolism: A Key Regulator of B Cell Function and Immune Response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/asparagine-metabolism-a-key-regulator-of-b-cell-function-and-immune-response/) - A new study has identified the amino acid asparagine as a critical regulator of germinal center (GC) B cells, which are essential for producing high-quality antibodies...
- [Exploring the link: Gut microbiome and respiratory disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/exploring-the-link-gut-microbiome-and-respiratory-disease/) - In a recent study, researchers used animal models and human lung sputum samples to clearly demonstrate that the gut commensal protozoan Tritrichomonas musculis (T.mu) can modulate a subset of intestine-residing group 2 innate lymphoid cell (ILC2) behaviour to remotely shape lung immunity...
- [Microglia’s Dual Role in Alzheimer’s: Breaking Down and Spreading Amyloid Plaques](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/microglias-dual-role-in-alzheimers-breaking-down-and-spreading-amyloid-plaques/) - In a new study, researchers revealed a mechanism of digestive exophagy, which pave the way for therapies to enhance microglial plaque-clearing capabilities...
- [A Promising Therapy for Heart Failure and Cardiac Hypertrophy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-promising-therapy-for-heart-failure-and-cardiac-hypertrophy/) - HHQ16, a potent derivative of Astragaloside IV from Astragalus membranaceus, reduced cardiac hypertrophy and improved heart function in animal models.
- [Inflammation and Heart Diseases: The Intersection of Immunology, Cardiology, and Rheumatology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inflammation-and-heart-diseases-the-intersection-of-immunology-cardiology-and-rheumatology/) - Inflammation plays a key role in heart disease, contributing to both acute events like myocardial infarction and chronic conditions like atherosclerosis.
- [Lung Macrophages: Key Insights into Repair and Fibrosis Pathways](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/revisiting-lung-macrophages-key-insights-into-repair-and-fibrosis-pathways/) - In a new study, researchers have gained insights into the role of lung macrophages in injury and repair, offering new perspectives on their involvement in fibrosis...
- [Human Immunology of Heart Failure: Inflammation’s Role in Cardiac Dysfunction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/human-immunology-of-heart-failure-inflammations-role-in-cardiac-dysfunction/) - Chronic inflammation from metabolic issues or immune dysfunction worsens heart failure symptoms and negatively impacts patient outcomes.
- [As I age, the Fc neonatal receptor may still contribute to controlling my disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/autoimmune-conditions/as-i-age-the-fc-neonatal-receptor-may-still-contribute-to-controlling-my-disease/)
- [Cellular RNA Plays a Pivotal Role in Antiviral Defense and Immune Regulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cellular-rna-plays-a-pivotal-role-in-antiviral-defense-and-immune-regulation/) - A recent study has revealed a new function for cellular RNA in regulating immune responses to RNA viruses, shedding light on how cells fend off infections...
- [Peripartum Cardiomyopathy Understanding the Risks and Management](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/peripartum-cardiomyopathy-understanding-the-risks-and-management/) - Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a rare form of heart failure that occurs during the last month of pregnancy or within the first few months postpartum.
- [The Immunology of Takotsubo Syndrome A Deeper Dive into the Stress-Inflammation Connection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immunology-of-takotsubo-syndrome-a-deeper-dive-into-the-stress-inflammation-connection/) - Takotsubo Syndrome (TTS), or "broken heart syndrome," is stress-induced cardiomyopathy. Researchers link its progression to inflammation and immune response.
- [Unlocking the Potential of CAR Tregs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unlocking-the-potential-of-car-tregs/) - Researchers have made significant progress in understanding how to optimize chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-regulatory cells (Tregs)...
- [A connection between BMI and Cognition - Alzheimer’s Disease Biomarkers](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-connection-between-bmi-and-cognition-alzheimers-disease-biomarkers/) - A recent study aimed to clarify the link between BMI, cognitive status, and key Alzheimer’s biomarkers, including Aβ42 and pTau, in elderly individuals...
- [New Insights into Anaphylaxis: Alcohol Worsens Nut Allergies and Unveils Broader Risk Patterns](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-into-anaphylaxis-alcohol-worsens-nut-allergies-and-unveils-broader-risk-patterns/) - A new study offers important findings on severe allergic reactions, shedding light on the connection between alcohol and nut allergies while revealing patterns that could improve emergency care for all anaphylactic allergies...
- [Emergency Contraception Mechanisms, Use, and Future Directions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/emergency-contraception-mechanisms-use-and-future-directions/) - Emergency contraception delays or inhibits ovulation, preventing fertilization. Levonorgestrel is most effective within 72 hours of unprotected intercourse.
- [Bridging the Gaps in Reproductive Health Services Across Europe](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/bridging-the-gaps-in-reproductive-health-services-across-europe/) - This research highlights disparities in access, quality of care, and essential services like contraception, abortion care, and pre-pregnancy counseling.
- [T Cell Exhaustion Linked to Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Path to New Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cell-exhaustion-linked-to-chronic-fatigue-syndrome-a-path-to-new-therapies/) - In a new study researchers provide critical insights into Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), revealing that pathogen-killing CD8+ T cells, a vital part of the immune system, show signs of exhaustion in patients with CFS...
- [Prenatal Diagnosis of Ocular Malformations: Cryptophthalmos, Aphakia, and Corneal Vascularization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prenatal-diagnosis-of-ocular-malformations-cryptophthalmos-aphakia-and-corneal-vascularization-2/) - In a recent study, researchers present a rare case of prenatal ultrasound diagnosis involving multiple ocular malformations: complete cryptophthalmos, congenital aphakia, and corneal vascularization...
- [Modelling Placental Antibody Transfer: A New Frontier for Optimising Maternal Vaccine development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/modelling-placental-antibody-transfer-a-new-frontier-for-optimising-maternal-vaccine-development/) - In a new study researchers have developed a computational model that captures the complexities of placental antibody transfer, providing a pathway to more effective and equitable maternal immunisation strategies...
- [Broadly Neutralising Antibodies Offer Hope for Severe Malaria Treatments and Vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/broadly-neutralising-antibodies-offer-hope-for-severe-malaria-treatments-and-vaccines/) - A new study has identified human antibodies capable of targeting key proteins involved in severe malaria, paving the way for novel treatments and vaccines...
- [Immunity to TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/immunity-to-tb/) - Tuberculosis Protracted or chronic bacterial infections are often caused by organisms that have an intracellular phase; this requires that they are adept at the penetration, evasion, and exploitation of the host immune response. The classic example of a chronic bacterial infection is seen with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative organism of tuberculosis (TB), a major public health
- [Immunity to Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/immunity-to-malaria/) - Malaria is a vector borne disease, caused by an intracellular parasite, the protozoan Plasmodium spp. It affects most tropical areas of the world (Figure 1), where mosquitos of the Anopheles genus are present. Young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to malaria infection, and most of the mortality occurs among children under 5 years
- [Immunity to HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/immunity-to-hiv/) - HIV Virus HIV is a retrovirus and made of double stranded RNA enclosed within a glycosylated capsid Target cells for HIV are any cell expressing both CD4 and CCR5 or CXCR4 (chemokine receptors) HIV has evolved to use these receptors to infect the “central command” of the immune system and by so doing ultimately disables
- [Postpartum Contraception Factors Influencing Contraceptive Choices in Brazilian Women](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/postpartum-contraception-factors-influencing-contraceptive-choices-in-brazilian-women/) - The study examined women’s immediate contraceptive preferences and use of their desired method six months postpartum, stressing postpartum services' importance.
- [Tracking the Lethal Threat: An In-Depth Review of Rabies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/tracking-the-lethal-threat-an-in-depth-review-of-rabies/) - Rabies virus (RABV) targets the central nervous system , causing fatal encephalitis. It spreads mainly via bites, with dogs as the top source of human cases.
- [Rabies Control in High-Burden Countries: The Case for Universal Pre-Exposure Immunization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rabies-control-in-high-burden-countries-the-case-for-universal-pre-exposure-immunization/) - Rabies causes 59,000 deaths annually, mainly in areas with poor healthcare and high animal bite exposure, disproportionately affecting children.
- [Prenatal Diagnosis of Ocular Malformations: Cryptophthalmos, Aphakia, and Corneal Vascularization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prenatal-diagnosis-of-ocular-malformations-cryptophthalmos-aphakia-and-corneal-vascularization/) - The study emphasizes that foetal ocular malformations like cryptophthalmos and aphakia can co-occur with other systemic malformations, such as renal agenesis.
- [Prevention of Gynaecological Malignancies: Current Strategies and Emerging Insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prevention-of-gynaecological-malignancies-current-strategies-and-emerging-insights/) - A recent editorial focuses on the prevention of Gynaecological malignancies and provides insights into care and management...
- [Mitochondrial Role in Stress Response: A Key to Inflammation and Cell Survival](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mitochondrial-role-in-stress-response-a-key-to-inflammation-and-cell-survival/) - Researchers have uncovered how a sudden halt in energy production within mitochondria prevents normal cell death (apoptosis) and instead triggers an inflammatory response...
- [12th IDA 2025 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/12th-ida-2025/12th-ida-2025-introduction/) - [table id=292 /]
- [Exploring the Link Between Diabetic Retinopathy and Toxoplasma gondii in Pregnant Hispanic Women](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/exploring-the-link-between-diabetic-retinopathy-and-toxoplasma-gondii-in-pregnant-hispanic-women/) - The study involved a cohort of Hispanic women, both TG-positive and TG-negative, to monitor retinal changes during and after pregnancy.
- [Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Subclinical Myocardial Dysfunction: A Closer Look](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/gestational-diabetes-mellitus-and-subclinical-myocardial-dysfunction-a-closer-look/) - As LV-GLS is a sensitive marker of early heart dysfunction that precedes overt changes in heart geometry and pump function.
- [Spatial Analysis Unveils Immunosuppressive Mechanisms in Prostate Cancer Linked to Club-Like Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/spatial-analysis-unveils-immunosuppressive-mechanisms-in-prostate-cancer-linked-to-club-like-cells/) - A recent study has identified a novel link between immunosuppression in prostate cancer and a specialized subtype of epithelial cells, known as club-like cells...
- [A Global Divide in Gynaecological Cancer Care: Addressing Disparities](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-global-divide-in-gynaecological-cancer-care-addressing-disparities/) - According to a recent perspective published in The Lancet, highlights how socioeconomic inequities shape access to quality healthcare in the fight against gynaecological cancers...
- [Unlocking the Role of Monocytes in Cancer Immunity: A Path to Enhanced Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unlocking-the-role-of-monocytes-in-cancer-immunity-a-path-to-enhanced-immunotherapy/) - In a new study, researchers have identified a previously underappreciated role for monocytes in reactivating T cells within tumours, offering promising new avenues for enhancing immunotherapy...
- [Shubhada Chiplunkar](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/shubhada-chiplunkar/) - Prof Shubhada Chiplunkar is a distinguished immunologist and researcher with over 35 years of experience in cancer biology and immunology. She is the former Director of the ACTREC at the Tata Memorial Centre in Navi Mumbai...
- [Prenatal Immune Activity and Sex Differences in Brain Development: A Pathway to Alzheimer's Risk?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prenatal-immune-activity-and-sex-differences-in-brain-development-a-pathway-to-alzheimers-risk/) - A recent study leveraging over 50 years of longitudinal data, provides new insights into how maternal immune activity during pregnancy shapes memory circuitry and function in offspring, with distinct patterns for males and females...
- [Immunologist of the Month - 2024](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/) - November 2024 Dr Shubhada Chiplunkar is a distinguished immunologist and researcher with over 35 years of experience in cancer biology and immunology. She is the former Director of the Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC) at the Tata Memorial Centre in Navi Mumbai, where she also led the Cancer Immunology and
- [Hematocrit Fluctuations in HIV Patients Co-infected with Malaria Parasites: A Comprehensive Review](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/hematocrit-fluctuations-in-hiv-patients-co-infected-with-malaria-parasites-a-comprehensive-review/) - In HIV patients, hematocrit fluctuations are common due to anemia induced by immune dysregulation and opportunistic infections.
- [Utility of Plasma Biomarkers in Diagnosing Spontaneous Preterm Birth](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/utility-of-plasma-biomarkers-in-diagnosing-spontaneous-preterm-birth/) - Preterm birth, defined as delivery before 37 weeks of gestation, remains a significant cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality worldwide.
- [Early Interventions for Children Exposed to Alcohol: A South African Model](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/early-interventions-for-children-exposed-to-alcohol-a-south-african-model/) - In response to the public health crisis, a singular early intervention study has addressed the relevant developmental problems among children who have been prenatally exposed to alcohol...
- [Antimicrobial Resistance: Now is the Time to Revisit Global Commitments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/antimicrobial-resistance-now-is-the-time-to-revisit-global-commitments/) - Antimicrobial resistance is a global threat, heavily impacting LMICs and vulnerable groups like children, older adults, and refugees
- [Targeting CD2:CD58 Interaction Offers New Hope for Hidradenitis Suppurativa Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/targeting-cd2cd58-interaction-offers-new-hope-for-hidradenitis-suppurativa-treatment/) - In a recent study, researchers made a potential breakthrough in the treatment of Hidradenitis suppurativa...
- [Understanding Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Persistent Global Issue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/understanding-fetal-alcohol-syndrome-a-persistent-global-issue/) - Researchers provide a comprehensive overview of fetal alcohol syndrome which may result in permanent and irreversible damage to the central nervous system (CNS)...
- [Reprogrammed Immune Cells Offer Hope in the Fight Against Glioblastoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/reprogrammed-immune-cells-offer-hope-in-the-fight-against-glioblastoma/) - Researchers have now developed an innovative immunotherapy that not only targets the glioblastoma tumour but also transforms its surrounding environment into an ally against the cancer...
- [Disease-Modifying Immunotherapy in Type 1 Diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/disease-modifying-immunotherapy-in-type-1-diabetes/) - Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune condition marked by the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, leading to insulin deficiency.
- [Immuno Throwback - The Complex Relationship Between COVID-19 and Kidney Disease: A Closer Look](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immuno-throwback-the-complex-relationship-between-covid-19-and-kidney-disease-a-closer-look/) - One area of growing research is the impact of COVID-19 on kidney disease, a topic that has garnered significant attention in recent medical literature...
- [CD47 - new insights into treatment of colorectal cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cd47-new-insights-into-treatment-of-colorectal-cancer/) - In a recent study, scientists have uncovered promising evidence that targeting CD47, a protein involved in the innate immune system, could be a game-changer in treating colorectal cancer...
- [Guardian Peptides Key to Balancing Defense and Protection in Neuroinflammatory Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/guardian-peptides-key-to-balancing-defense-and-protection-in-neuroinflammatory-diseases/) - New research uncovers the brain’s sophisticated mechanism for balancing immune responses, which may help in developing improved therapies for diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer’s...
- [The Immunological Landscape of Kidney Disease: Insights and Innovations](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immunological-landscape-of-kidney-disease-insights-and-innovations/) - New research sheds light on the intricate relationship between the kidneys and the immune system, emphasizing the dual role of immune components in both pathogenic and protective mechanisms...
- [Insights: CD4+ T Cell Tolerance and Autoimmunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/insights-cd4-t-cell-tolerance-and-autoimmunity/) - A recent study offers an in-depth exploration of how naive CD4+ T cells maintain immune tolerance and how their dysregulation can lead to autoimmune diseases...
- [Dual Role of the GID Complex in Cancer and Tuberculosis Opens Doors to Novel Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/dual-role-of-the-gid-complex-in-cancer-and-tuberculosis-opens-doors-to-novel-therapies/) - Researchers have found that a protein complex known to inhibit cancer cell growth also plays a critical role in slowing down tuberculosis (TB) infections...
- [Monica Guzman](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/monica-guzman/) - Dr Monica L. Guzman is an Associate Prof and Assistant Director of Diversity Equity and Inclusion at Weill Cornell Medicine, USA. She was listed among 100 inspiring Hispanic/Latinx scientists in America in 2020 and Hispanic Role Models in Science: Advice for Future Scientists. Her lab...
- [Immuno Throwback - Resident Memory T Cells and Cancer Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/resident-memory-t-cells-and-cancer-immunity/) - An interesting study thoroughly examines the role of Resident memory T cells in cancer immunology, focusing on their unique functions, mechanisms of action, and potential as therapeutic targets...
- [Understanding SARS-CoV-2's Enzyme: A Key to Its High Infectivity and Potential Treatments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/understanding-sars-cov-2s-enzyme-a-key-to-its-high-infectivity-and-potential-treatments/) - In a recent study, researchers shed light on a unique enzyme in the SARS-CoV-2 virus that allows it to bypass the body’s initial immune defences, potentially explaining why it is more infectious than its predecessors, SARS and MERS...
- [Novel Alveolar Macrophage Model Sheds New Light on Tumor Necrosis Factor's Role in Tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-alveolar-macrophage-model-sheds-new-light-on-tumor-necrosis-factors-role-in-tuberculosis/) - A recent study highlights a key discovery that challenges previous assumptions about the role of an important immune protein, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), in infectious disease...
- [Microbial Survival Strategies in Extreme Environments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/microbial-survival-strategies-in-extreme-environments/) - In a recent paper, researchers explore the survival strategies of microorganisms in environments where life appears to be in slow motion or even halted altogether—places characterized by extreme cold, dryness, and nutrient scarcity...
- [Prediction of disease – using immune signatures](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prediction-of-disease-using-immune-signatures/) - A recent study showed that distinct immune "signatures" in cancer patients undergoing immunotherapy could help predict adverse side effects, enabling earlier interventions to prevent serious complications...
- [Mechanisms of GBP1: A Key Protein in the Body's Defense Against Bacterial Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mechanisms-of-gbp1-a-key-protein-in-the-bodys-defense-against-bacterial-infections/) - In a recent publication researchers show how GBP1 proteins help the immune system combat bacterial infections...
- [Immuno-Throwback: Herpes Simplex Virus-1 in the Brain](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immuno-throwback-herpes-simplex-virus-1-in-the-brain/) - A paper from 2020 delves into the darker side of HSV-1, focusing on its neurological implications, particularly in the brain, and the associated pathological consequences...
- [Novel insights into organ transplant rejection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-insights-into-organ-transplant-rejection/) - In a new study, researchers are pioneering a novel approach that may one day eliminate the need for lifelong immunosuppression in organ transplantation...
- [Nanotube-Mediated Mitochondrial Transfer: Enhancing T Cell Power Against Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/nanotube-mediated-mitochondrial-transfer-enhancing-t-cell-power-against-cancer/) - A recent publication has introduced a new strategy to boost the antitumor response of CD8+ T cells through mitochondrial transfer...
- [A New Study Underscores the Importance of Breastfeeding for Infant Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-study-underscores-the-importance-of-breastfeeding-for-infant-health/) - In a recent paper, researchers have discovered that breast milk plays a crucial role in protecting infants from rotavirus, a common gastrointestinal illness...
- [Immuno Throwback - The Neuroimmunology of Chronic Stress](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-neuroimmunology-of-chronic-stress/) - An immunology throwback - interesting research has delved into the relationship between chronic social stress, inflammation, and mood disorders, particularly focusing on mechanisms of stress sensitization observed in conditions such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder...
- [A New Frontier in Autoimmunity: The Role of Neoself-Antigens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-frontier-in-autoimmunity-the-role-of-neoself-antigens/) - A recent study provides new insights on autoimmunity, suggesting that the body's own proteins with unusual structures can trigger a cascade of inflammation leading to autoimmunity...
- [The Eye's Immune Defense: A New Perspective](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-eyes-immune-defense-a-new-perspective/) - A recent study has provided valuable insights into the immunology of the eye, particularly in the context of autoimmune uveitis...
- [One Health Approach in Zoonotic Disease Research](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/one-health-approach-in-zoonotic-disease-research/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand One Health According to the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) 75% of emerging human infectious diseases are zoonotic meaning they can be transmitted from animals to humans. Additionally, 60% of human pathogens have their origins in domestic and wild animals. There is a broad agreement that effective control of
- [Emilio Luis Malchiodi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/emilio-luis-malchiodi/) - Emilio Luis Malchiodi is Professor Titular in Immunology at the Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires and a researcher at CONICET. His research is on Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, and structural immunology.
- [Immuno Throwback - Advances in Cutaneous T-cell Lymphoma Research](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immuno-throwback-advances-in-cutaneous-t-cell-lymphoma-researchadvances-in-the-understanding-and-treatment-of-cutaneous-t-cell-lymphoma/) - Over the past few decades, there has been substantial progress in elucidating the molecular and immunological underpinnings of Cutaneous T-cell Lymphoma, leading to the development of novel therapeutic strategies...
- [Zoonotic Infections and One Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/zoonotic-infections-and-one-health/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the basic principles of the immune response to infections Answer these questions: Learning Objective 2: to understand microbial pathogenesis Answer these questions: Learning Objective 3: to understand the Anti-infectious Immunity Read the content provided at Immunopaedia – Basics of Anti-infectious Immunity Complete the quiz section and
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/grant-writing/)
- [Fever's Double-Edged Sword: A Cellular Perspective](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fevers-double-edged-sword-a-cellular-perspective/) - In a new study, researchers have revealed a more complex interplay between fever and immune cell function...
- [The Itch Behind Allergies: A New Understanding](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-itch-behind-allergies-a-new-understanding/) - A recent study has shed light on a specific pathway through which immune and nerve cells interact to trigger allergic responses...
- [Disease-specific Transcriptional Programs Govern Airway Goblet Cell Hyperplasia in Asthma and Cystic Fibrosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/disease-specific-transcriptional-programs-govern-airway-goblet-cell-hyperplasia-in-asthma-and-cystic-fibrosis/) - Recent research has highlighted the role of distinct, disease-specific transcriptional programs in governing goblet cell hyperplasia in asthma and cystic fibrosis...
- [Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): A Role for Macrophage Lipid Mediators](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/acute-kidney-injury-aki-a-role-for-macrophage-lipid-mediators/) - Recent research has shed light on the role of the transcription factor MAFB in regulating macrophage function during acute kidney injury...
- [Childhood Immunisation Holds Promise for HIV Prevention](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/childhood-immunisation-holds-promise-for-hiv-prevention/) - A recent study suggests that early-life immunisation against HIV could provide robust protection against the virus, particularly in adolescents who face a heightened risk of infection...
- [A New Pathway to Skin Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-pathway-to-skin-health/) - Researchers have uncovered a novel molecular signalling pathway that plays a critical role in maintaining skin barrier integrity...
- [Immuno Throwback - Role of Inflammatory Cytokines TNF-α and IL-17 in the Pathogenesis of Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immuno-throwback-role-of-inflammatory-cytokines-tnf-α-and-il-17-in-the-pathogenesis-of-disease/) - An immunology throwback - This article delves into the roles of TNF-α and IL-17 in disease progression, focusing on their mechanisms of action, the synergistic effects they produce when acting together, and their potential as therapeutic targets...
- [T Cells and Innate Immune Memory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cells-and-innate-immune-memory/) - In a recent study, researchers have revealed a groundbreaking discovery: T cells, key players in the adaptive immune system, can influence the memory of innate immune cells...
- [Immunology Throwback - Effects of Airway Surface Liquid pH on Host Defence in Cystic Fibrosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/effects-of-airway-surface-liquid-ph-on-host-defence-in-cystic-fibrosis/) - A throwback to a review discussing emerging research and exploring the potential new therapies for treating and pathological mechanisms of cystic fibrosis..
- [Gut Microbes and the Development of Allergies: A New Understanding](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/gut-microbes-and-the-development-of-allergies-a-new-understanding/) - Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in understanding the link between gut health and allergies...
- [Tracey J. Lamb](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/tracey-j-lamb/) - Dr Tracey J. Lamb, PhD is a notable researcher in the field of malaria. Her work focuses on understanding the immunopathogenesis of infectious diseases. Tracey holds the position of Professor of Pathology at the Department of Pathology, University of Utah
- [Immunology Throwback - Roles of Antimicrobial Peptides in Airway Mucosa and Cystic Fibrosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/in-case-you-missed-it-roles-of-antimicrobial-peptides-in-airway-mucosa-and-cystic-fibrosis/) - Novel research has explored the expression and roles of antimicrobial peptides in the airway mucosa, with a focus on their potential implications in cystic fibrosis...
- [New insights – Proteomic aging and age-related diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-proteomic-aging-and-age-related-diseases/) - In a new study, blood proteomic information was selected to develop a proteomic age clock to assess aging-related phenotypes and age-related diseases...
- [Agricultural worker with discomfort, cough and bleeding sputum](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/one-health/agricultural-worker-presented-with-general-discomfort-cough-and-bleeding-sputum/) - A 32-year-old male agricultural worker presented with general discomfort and cough with bleeding sputum. He was coughing sporadically in the last 6 months.
- [Equity, Diversity and Inclusion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/equity-diversity-and-inclusion/) - Introduction Current research suggests that unintended biases in decision-making, 'implicit bias,' may contribute to disparities by shaping researcher behaviour. This course, designed in alignment with current research, aims to review the definitions of implicit bias, sexism, and exclusion in STEM. Crucially, we are committed to discussing how to implement bias-reducing strategies to achieve equity and
- [Young girl with recurrent history of mycobacterial disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/primary-immunodeficiencies/young-girl-with-recurrent-history-of-mycobacterial-disease/) - Case of recurrent mycobacterial disease - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease and study of the immunology
- [A four year old with immunodeficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/primary-immunodeficiencies/a-four-year-old-with-immunodeficiency/) - Case of immunodeficiency - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) and study of the immunology of the disease
- [A Novel Approach to Combat Heart Transplant Rejection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-novel-approach-to-combat-heart-transplant-rejection/) - In a new study, researchers have identified a potential breakthrough in preventing heart transplant rejection...
- [Immune Suppression in Chronic Hepatitis B: A Novel Mechanism](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-suppression-in-chronic-hepatitis-b-a-novel-mechanism/) - A recent study has unveiled a previously unknown mechanism by which the liver actively suppresses immune responses against HBV...
- [Immuno-SA 2024 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/immuno-sa-2024-introduction/) - Important Information You will have 6 weeks to complete all of the modules. Please watch the videos and read the supplied articles and papers. You are required to answer all of the questions in each module. Important! Check that your email address is input in the "email" field in each set of questions as we
- [Immune Response to Parasitic Zoonotic Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/immune-response-to-parasitic-zoonotic-infections/) - Learning Objective 1: Understanding the Immune Response to Parasitic Infections Watch this Video Answer these questions: Learning Objective 2: Pathogenesis of Zoonotic Parasitic Infections Watch this Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RED67fjYOs Answer these questions: Learning Objective 3: to understand the immune response to parasitic infections Read the content provided at Immunopaedia – Immunity to
- [Immune Response to Viral Zoonotic Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/immune-response-to-viral-zoonotic-infections/) - Learning Objective 1: Understanding the Immune Response to viral Infections Watch these videos: Answer these questions: Learning Objective 2: Pathogenesis of viral infections Watch this video: Answer these questions: Further reading - Immunity to Viral Infections Learning Objective 3: To understand viral zoonotic diseases, using Ebola as an example Read
- [Immune Response to Bacterial Zoonotic Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-south-africa-2024/immune-response-to-bacterial-zoonotic-infections/) - Learning Objective 1: to understand the the immune response to bacterial infection. Watch this video: Answer these questions: Learning Objective 2: to understand the pathogenesis of tuberculosis infection Watch this video: Answer these questions: Learning Objective 3: to understand the immune response to TB Read the content provided at Immunopaedia - Immunity to
- [Celiac Disease: novel breakthrough!](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/celiac-disease-novel-breakthrough/) - Recent research has provided novel insight into the mechanisms underlying celiac disease pathogenesis...
- [Management of Rabies in Côte d’Ivoire](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/one-health/management-of-rabies-in-cote-divoire/) - The annual incidence of rabies is around twenty human cases and ten animal cases in Côte d’Ivoire.The national One Health platform has strengthened multidisciplinary collaboration on rabies prevention and control...
- [Sudden onset of fever, fatigue, myalgia, and headache](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/one-health/sudden-onset-of-fever-fatigue-myalgia-and-headache/) - A previously healthy 35-year-old male presents with sudden onset of fever, fatigue, myalgia, and headache. He reports recent travel to an Ebola-endemic region in West Africa. The patient presented with signs...
- [A Potential Breakthrough in Long COVID Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-potential-breakthrough-in-long-covid-treatment/) - A new study has uncovered a potential root cause of respiratory symptoms in long COVID and a promising avenue for treatment...
- [Maternal Influenza and Fetal Neurodevelopment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/maternal-influenza-and-fetal-neurodevelopment/) - Recent research has shed new light on the relationship between maternal influenza A infection and offspring neurological development...
- [One Health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/one-health/) - Please choose a Case Study below
- [Insights into immune evasion by respiratory bacteria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/insights-into-immune-evasion-by-respiratory-bacteria/) - Researchers have unveiled a new mechanism of immune evasion used by Haemophilus influenzae; a bacterium notorious for exacerbating respiratory infections...
- [Circadian tumor infiltration and function of CD8+ T cells dictate immunotherapy efficacy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/circadian-tumor-infiltration-and-function-of-cd8-t-cells-dictate-immunotherapy-efficacy/) - In a recent study, researchers investigated the circadian regulation of CD8+ T cells and its implications for cancer immunotherapy efficacy...
- [Engineered B Cells: A New Frontier in Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/engineered-b-cells-a-new-frontier-in-immunotherapy/) - Scientists have engineered a revolutionary approach to harnessing the body's immune system against formidable diseases...
- [Clive Gray](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/clive-gray/) - The Director of Immunopaedia, Clive Gray, is the winner of the 2023 Harry Oppenheimer Fellowship award, He will use the fellowship to investigate events in the placenta related to angiogenesis and identify a biomarker that can predict premature birth.
- [Organoid models elucidate Celiac disease pathogenesis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/organoid-models-elucidate-celiac-disease-pathogenesis/) - A new study leverages intestinal organoids derived from patients with celiac disease to identify a previously unknown molecular link between gluten exposure and intestinal damage...
- [Insights into the immunological roots of stroke](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/insights-into-the-immunological-roots-of-stroke/) - In a recent study, researchers investigated the elevated incidence of comorbidities post-stroke and if they might share a common immunological root...
- [Unveiling Biomarkers for COVID-19 Outcomes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unveiling-biomarkers-for-covid-19-outcomes/) - A new study aimed to elucidate the complex immune responses involved in COVID-19 to identify biomarkers that predict different clinical outcomes...
- [New insights – Spatiotemporal control of necroptosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-spatiotemporal-control-of-necroptosis/) - Researchers developed a light-activatable receptor interacting protein kinase 3 (La-RIPK3) system to show that RIPK3 polymerization upregulated genes involved in cellular stress and downregulates those involved in cell survival...
- [Emerging Biomarkers in HIV Care: The Role of Platelet Index Ratios](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/emerging-biomarkers-in-hiv-care-the-role-of-platelet-index-ratios/) - A new study aimed to investigate the utility of platelet index ratios as emerging biomarkers for HIV...
- [Exercise Boosts Cancer-Fighting Immune Cells in Breast Cancer Patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/exercise-boosts-cancer-fighting-immune-cells-in-breast-cancer-patients/) - A recent study investigated the impact of exercise on immune cell function in breast cancer patients...
- [T Cells Take Aim at Merkel Cell Carcinoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cells-take-aim-at-merkel-cell-carcinoma/) - A recent study offers a beacon of hope for patients battling Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare but aggressive form of skin cancer...
- [Course Recordings](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2024-workshop/course-recordings/) - Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Unfortunately, this recording had technical issues Day 4 Day 5
- [Course Materials](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2024-workshop/course-materials/)
- [A New Hope in HIV Vaccine Development: Targeting Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-hope-in-hiv-vaccine-development-targeting-broadly-neutralizing-antibodies/) - New research represents a significant step forward in an immunization approach for HIV, that targets the body's production of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs)...
- [New Research Sheds Light on Lupus Pathogenesis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-research-sheds-light-on-lupus-pathogenesis/) - A recent study has identified a potential mechanism underlying Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) pathogenesis...
- [Introduction and Timetable](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2024-workshop/introduction/) - Last year the IUIS Education course “Immuno-India: Epigenetic Regulation of Immune Responses” was held. Based on feedback from this course, we have developed an online follow-up course, focused on genetic and epigenetic techniques. The course has been created and will be led by Dr Satyajeet Khare from Symbiosis International (Deemed University), India. The course will
- [Potential Treatment for Ulcerative Colitis: Targeting Stem-like T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hope-for-ulcerative-colitis-targeting-stem-like-t-cells/) - Recent research has shed light on a new potential target for treating ulcerative colitis: stem-like T cells...
- [New Hope for Personalised Treatment of Neuromyelitis Optica](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hope-for-personalized-treatment-of-neuromyelitis-optica/) - A new study offers a glimpse into a future of personalised medicine for Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD)...
- [How Hepatitis E Evades the Immune System and Becomes Chronic](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-hepatitis-e-evades-the-immune-system-and-becomes-chronic/) - A new study sheds light on how HEV evades the immune system and potentially transitions from acute to chronic infection...
- [Dieter Kabelitz](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/dieter-kabelitz/) - Professor Dieter Kabelitz is an eminent immunologist with an impressive career spanning over 50 years. He served as a full Professor at the University of Kiel and was the Director of the Institute of Immunology from 1999 to 2018.
- [Fat Fighters: How Macrophages Link Obesity and Cancer Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fat-fighters-how-macrophages-link-obesity-and-cancer-treatment/) - New research sheds light on the complex relationship between obesity and cancer...
- [Fasting Might Boost Your Body's Natural Cancer Fighters: New Study in Mice](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fasting-might-boost-your-bodys-natural-cancer-fighters-new-study-in-mice/) - Exciting new research suggests that strategic fasting periods could improve our body's natural defenses against cancer...
- [Muscle Mend: Macrophages Morph to Heal After Injury](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/muscle-mend-macrophages-morph-to-heal-after-injury/) - A new study sheds light on a surprising discovery: macrophages, immune cells typically associated with inflammation, can transform into mural cells to promote healing in injured muscle tissue...
- [Placental Clues: Monitoring Fetal Brain Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/placental-clues-monitoring-fetal-brain-development/) - A new study offers a glimmer of hope for identifying newborns at risk of neurodevelopmental disorders...
- [Does pre-TCRα deficiency have any effect on human beings?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/does-pre-tcrα-deficiency-have-any-effect-on-human-beings/) - In a recent study, researchers aimed to establish development of αβ T-cells in humans in order to combat pre-TCRα deficiency...
- [What dose of SARS-CoV-2 is safe enough to induce infection in seropositive individuals?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-dose-of-sars-cov-2-is-safe-enough-to-induce-infection-in-seropositive-individuals/) - In a new study, researchers sought to identify an effective dose of pre-alpha SARS-CoV-2 virus that induced infection in previously infected individuals...
- [Heart Failure's Hidden Culprit: How It Alters Stem Cells and Fuels Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/heart-failures-hidden-culprit-how-it-alters-stem-cells-and-fuels-disease/) - A recent study sheds light on a surprising culprit in the progression of heart failure: Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)...
- [My hands swell and are painful](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/autoimmune-conditions/my-hands-swell-and-are-painful/) - Eva is a 50-year-old Caucasian woman who presents to the clinic with complaints of hand and feet swelling to the point of visible deformities. Her joint pain wakes her up several times during the night and she has morning stiffness for several hours.
- [Epstein-Barr Virus: Targeting Metabolism to Curb Cancer Risk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/epstein-barr-virus-targeting-metabolism-to-curb-cancer-risk/) - A new study sheds light on a potential strategy to combat EBV-linked malignancies by targeting the virus's metabolic manipulation of infected cells...
- [Roslyn Kemp](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/roslyn-kemp/) - May 2024 On the IUIS Council and serves as Vice Chair of many committees; namely the IUIS Education, the Gender Equity and the Publications Committees. Ros is Chair of the IUIS EDU Online Subcommittee, which oversees Immunopaedia pre-course content.
- [Eosinophils: Unveiling the Mysteries of These Immune Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/eosinophils-unveiling-the-mysteries-of-these-immune-cells/) - To better understand eosinophils and their response to treatment, researchers recently conducted a detailed analysis of these cells at various stages of development...
- [News Insight - Bystander neutrophils and Mtb infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/news-insight-bystander-neutrophils-and-mtb-infection/) - In a recent study, researchers examined and described the macrophage–neutrophil axis in Mtb infection, assessing neutrophil function...
- [C-Section and Measles Vaccine: One Dose May Not Be Enough](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/c-section-and-measles-vaccine-one-dose-may-not-be-enough/) - A recent study reveals a crucial factor for ensuring measles immunity in children: the delivery method...
- [Melanoma: New Blood Test Predicts Response to Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/melanoma-new-blood-test-predicts-response-to-immunotherapy/) - A new study sheds light on this challenge by identifying a promising liquid biopsy biomarker for personalized treatment decisions...
- [Dirty Air and Altered Genes - Risks for infants](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/dirty-air-and-altered-genes-risks-for-infants/) - New study shows that in pregnancy and infancy, critical periods, exposure to air pollution can have lasting consequences...
- [AI Paves the Way for Personalized Cancer Immunotherapy with Powerful T Cell Selection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ai-paves-the-way-for-personalized-cancer-immunotherapy-with-powerful-t-cell-selection/) - Scientists have harnessed the power of artificial intelligence (AI) to develop a predictive model for identifying the most potent cancer-killing immune cells for personalized cancer immunotherapy....
- [Scientists gain insights into TLR7](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/scientists-gain-insights-into-tlr7/) - New research sheds light on the intricate interplay of enzymes surrounding TLR7...
- [Gut Microbiome Harmony in Dads May Be Crucial for Healthy Offspring: New Study in Mice](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/gut-microbiome-harmony-in-dads-may-be-crucial-for-healthy-offspring-new-study-in-mice/) - A recent study sheds light on a surprising new connection: a father's gut health may influence the health of his offspring...
- [Engineered Off-the-Shelf Cells Offer New Hope for Glioblastoma Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/engineered-off-the-shelf-cells-offer-new-hope-for-glioblastoma-treatment/) - researchers are developing a novel immunotherapy approach that offers a glimmer of hope for glioblastoma patients...
- [Negatives After Stroke or Heart Attack - Increased Infection Risk and Potential Treatments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/negatives-after-stroke-or-heart-attack-increased-infection-risk-and-potential-treatments/) - A recent stroke or heart attack significantly weakens a person's immune defenses. A new study has shed light on the underlying cause and offers a promising therapeutic approach...
- [A Weapon Against Superbugs: Promising New Vaccine Candidate Emerges](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-weapon-against-superbugs-promising-new-vaccine-candidate-emerges/) - In a significant breakthrough, researchers have developed a promising vaccine candidate to combat these superbugs...
- [New Hope for Treatment-Resistant Lyme Disease: Targeting Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hope-for-treatment-resistant-lyme-disease-targeting-inflammation/) - Researchers have identified a promising new avenue for treating persistent symptoms of Lyme disease...
- [Rubina Bunjun](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/rubina-bunjun/) - April 2024Current research focuses on understanding immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Africa, namely, investigating pre-existing immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in adolescents, and immune dysfunction during “long COVID”. Junior Research Fellow within the IDM
- [Never Too Early to Exercise: Long-Term Benefits of Early Life Exercise](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/never-too-early-to-exercise-long-term-benefits-of-early-life-exercise/) - Researchers investigated the benefits of exercise on long-term health, particularly regarding whether the benefits of childhood exercise can have a lasting impact on adult health...
- [Hidden Sugars: Unveiling a Link Between HIV and Accelerated Aging](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/hidden-sugars-unveiling-a-link-between-hiv-and-accelerated-aging/) - Researchers have uncovered a surprising culprit increasing the risk of age-related diseases in people living with HIV: sugar abnormalities in the blood...
- [New Hope for Chronic Hepatitis B: Boosting T Cell Power](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hope-for-chronic-hepatitis-b-boosting-t-cell-power/) - Researchers are exploring a promising new strategy: harnessing the power of stem cell memory T cells (TSCMs) to combat the HBV infection...
- [New Blood Test May Help Diagnose and Treat Long COVID](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-blood-test-may-help-diagnose-and-treat-long-covid/) - Researchers identified distinct patterns of inflammation in the blood of long COVID patients, offering hope for improved diagnosis and treatment...
- [Alzheimer's Breakthrough: Microglia Power Up to Clear Harmful Plaques](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/alzheimers-breakthrough-microglia-power-up-to-clear-harmful-plaques/) - New Alzheimer's drugs work by tagging amyloid beta for removal by immune cells, but researchers have discovered a promising alternative approach...
- [Mapping the Gut: A New Tool Unveils Secrets of Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mapping-the-gut-a-new-tool-unveils-secrets-of-inflammation/) - To gain a deeper understanding inflammatory bowel disease, researchers have employed a powerful new tool: MERFISH (multiplexed-error robust-fluorescence in situ hybridization)...
- [A New Twist in the COVID’s story: Antibodies Gone Rogue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-twist-in-the-covids-story-antibodies-gone-rogue/) - Researchers have stumbled upon a surprising discovery that could hold the key to unlocking some of the mysteries surrounding COVID-19 and the lingering effects known as long COVID...
- [Psoriasis: new insights into potential treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/psoriasis-new-insights-into-potential-treatment/) - Scientists have uncovered a critical missing piece in the puzzle of psoriasis, a chronic inflammatory skin disease...
- [New Hurdle for CAR T-Cell Therapy in Aggressive Blood Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hurdle-for-car-t-cell-therapy-in-aggressive-blood-cancer/) - A new study highlights a specific mutation in aggressive blood cancer cells that can render immunotherapy ineffective...
- [Prossy Naluyima](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/prossy-naluyima/) - March 2024A laboratory scientist with a bachelor’s degree from Makerere University, a Master of Science degree in Biomedical Science from the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland, UK, and a doctorate in Medical Science from Karolinska Institute of Sweden.
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/grant-writing/) - How to write a research grant application - Professor Clive Gray Grant Writing Presentations by Afribop2024 Participants
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/grant-writing/) - Immuno-Mexico 2024 Grant Writing - Professor Clive Gray
- [Baby Gut Bacteria: Serotonin Powerhouse for Early Immunity!](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/baby-gut-bacteria-serotonin-powerhouse-for-early-immunity/) - A new study sheds light on the surprising role of gut bacteria in protecting newborns from allergies...
- [New Hope for a Type 1 Diabetes in Liposome Therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hope-for-a-type-1-diabetes-in-liposome-therapy/) - A recent study sheds light on how these nanoparticles interact with immune cells called macrophages, paving the way for future clinical trials...
- [SUN Honours Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/sun-honours-introduction/) - [table id=282 /]
- [Immune cells of the liver - fighting cholesterol](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-cells-of-the-liver-fighting-cholesterol/) - A new study sheds light on how our bodies fight bad cholesterol. It turns out, immune cells in the liver play a crucial role as the body's first line of defense against excess cholesterol...
- [Exciting New Target Discovered for Epstein-Barr Virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/exciting-new-target-discovered-for-epstein-barr-virus/) - Scientists have identified a promising target for developing vaccines and treatments against the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)...
- [Sleep can strengthen your immune response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sleep-can-strengthen-your-immune-response/) - Researchers have discovered how sleep enhances the ability of T cells, crucial to the immune system, to travel to lymph nodes...
- [Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/introduction/) - AFRICAN IMMUNOLOGY OF PARASITES, PATHOGENS, AND PATHOGENESIS (AFriBOP) AfrIBOP is a week-long course that targets PhD students and early postdocs interested in the interaction between the immune system and pathogens – including how this underlies the pathogenesis of a wide range of infectious and non-communicable diseases. The course constitutes intensive, interactive learning sessions and simulations
- [New Hope for Cervical Cancer - A Promising Therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-hope-for-cervical-cancer-a-promising-therapy/) - A recent study has revealed a promising hope for cervical cancer treatment in the form of rejuvenated cytotoxic T lymphocytes (rejTs)...
- [Beyond a Window: Eyes Emerge as Brain's Immune Defenders](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/beyond-a-window-eyes-emerge-as-brains-immune-defenders/) - A recent study has revealed a surprising new role of our eyes: acting as immunological defenses for our brain...
- [Suppression in the Context of Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/suppression-in-the-context-of-disease/) - Immunological systems function as soldiers to resist illness, but under some circumstances, the soldiers are reprogrammed to limit immunological response. These specific circumstances appear in cancer and illness. These reprogrammed immune cells are one of the most exciting areas of study and targeting them can be extremely useful to patients. These immunosuppressive cells are broadly
- [Baby Power: Surprising Strength of Newborn Immune Systems](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/baby-power-surprising-strength-of-newborn-immune-systems/) - A new study reveals a surprising truth: newborn T cells, crucial white blood cells for fighting infections, outperform adults' in specific ways...
- [Interfering with T cell help:  IFN-β  for Enhanced Anticancer Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/interfering-with-t-cell-help-ifn-β-for-enhanced-anticancer-immunity/) - In a recent paper, scientists have described a new addition to enhance immunotherapy...
- [Autoimmunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/autoimmunity/) - What is Autoimmunity? The immune system normally works to defend the body and eliminate infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and other invading microbes. If a person has an autoimmune disease, the immune system mistakenly attacks self, targeting the cells,tissues, and organs of a person's own body. Break in “Tolerance” There are more than 80 different
- [Vaccines and Other Interventions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/vaccines-and-other-interventions/) - Vaccine Successes Vaccines are able to eradicate diseases. One of the best examples of this is Smallpox. Smallpox was the first successful vaccine to be developed in 1796. A global vaccination program which started in 1967 led to the eradication of the disease as there have been no reported smallpox cases since 1977. Polio is
- [Mosquito Vector Biology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/mosquito-vector-biology/) - Malaria Malaria is a vector borne disease, caused by an intracellular parasite, the protozoan Plasmodium spp. It affects most tropical areas of the world (Figure 1), where mosquitos of the Anopheles genus are present. Young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable to malaria infection, and most of the mortality occurs among children under
- [NCDs and Multimorbidity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/ncds-and-multimorbidity/) - Hypertension Developing an Intervention to Improve the overall management of hypertension Question: What are the characteristics of a potentially feasible, scalable and impactful hypertension management care package in SSA Methodology: Triangulating data from the previous WPs in theory of change workshops and iterative formative research (qualitative studies) we will develop a comprehensive hypertension management package
- [Parasites](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/parasites/) - Helminths High variability of parasitic antigens implies high variability in host immune responses Host immune responses against helminths can result in concomitant /partial/sterile immunity Innate and adaptive immunity interact , and there is high complexity Th2 cells play a pivotal role , interlinked with other T lymphocytes , cytokines , effector cells and effector molecules
- [Immune Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/immune-cells/) - B cells: function and repertoire Respond to antigens and differentiate into plasmablasts and plasma cells Plasmablasts and plasma cells secrete antibodies Protection from infectious disease Immobilization - flagellae of motile bacteria Cytolysis - complement fixation Opsonization - phagocytosis via Fc receptors Activated B cells can secrete cytokines such as pro-inflammatory IL-6 and TNF-a Take up
- [Career Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2024/career-development/) - Faculty Presentations
- [A Glimpse into the Future of HIV Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-glimpse-into-the-future-of-hiv-treatment/) - Researchers are exploring ways to "wake up" latent HIV and make it vulnerable to the immune system, potentially paving the way for a cure...
- [Alzheimer's: new insights found in our blood and the immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/alzheimers-new-insights-found-in-our-blood-and-the-immune-system/) - A recent study has described a fascinating connection between Alzheimer's disease and the immune system...
- [Talitha Müller](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/talitha-muller/) - February 2024Currently near the end of her PhD in Clinical Science and Immunology under the supervision of Prof Jonny Peter and Prof Edward Sturrock; and she just finished her 4th year of Medicine at UCT.
- [CAR T-cell therapy – a potential treatment for autoimmune diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/car-t-cell-therapy-a-potential-treatment-for-autoimmune-diseases/) - Researchers tested a new therapy called CD19 CAR T-cell therapy and found promising results in patients with conditions like lupus, myositis, and scleroderma...
- [Ambassador of the Month - 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/2023-ambassador-of-the-month/) - December 2023 Dr Tatenda Murangi has volunteered to help create pre-course modules late this year and he is therefore our last Ambassador of the Month for 2023. Tatenda recently started a position as a post-doctoral fellow at Trinity College Dublin as part of Professor Fallon’s translational immunology group. His move to Ireland comes after the
- [Smoking’s Shadow: How It Alters Your Immune System Even After Quitting](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/smokings-shadow-how-it-alters-your-immune-system-even-after-quitting/) - A recent study reveals a "long-term memory" of how smoking weakens your body's defences, highlighting its far-reaching consequences...
- [ImmunoInformatics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/immunoinformatics/) - Introduction Immunoinformatics merges the fields of Immunomics, Structural Immunology, and Systems Biology (Figure 1) In 2017 Florian Marowetz published an article: “All biology is computational biology”, about how computers reshaped the field of biology. Marowetz defends computational methods and computational thinking. Marowetz states that when we work with large datasets, the methods applied for their analysis
- [Novel Therapeutic Strategies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/novel-therapeutic-strategies/) - Therapeutic Antibodies Cancer Immunoediting: Immunosurveillance, Equilibrium, and Escape The immune system plays an essential role in immunosurveillance, as immune cells of the adaptive and innate immune systems infiltrate into the tumor microenvironment (TME), contributing to the modulation of tumor progression (fig.1). The immunoediting hypothesis is composed of three phases (Fig. 1). The first
- [Redirecting Cytotoxicity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/redirecting-cytotoxicity/) - Cell-based Cancer Therapies Cytotoxicity is a property of some immune cells to induce lysis of other cells that can be detected as non-functional or transformed. In the recent years, redirecting cytotoxicity in cancer has been the base of cell-based cancer therapies that involve the use of living cells to treat cancer. There are several types
- [Epigenetics Research in Systems Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/epigenetics-research-in-systems-immunology/) - Epigenetics Research in Systems Immunology: Concepts, Technologies and Future Concept of the Systems Immunology The conventional approach in immunology research has been ‘hypotheses’ driven, in which the Immunologist performs experiments, generates a set of observations and then develops a ‘mechanistic’ understanding at the end of the study. In contrast to this conventional paradigm, systems biology
- [T Cell Exhaustion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/t-cell-exhaustion/) - Introduction The intricate interplay within the immune system relies on T cells, crucial orchestrators of the defensive response. However, during chronic viral infections and cancer, these T cells can enter a state of dysfunction known as exhaustion. Understanding the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon is critical for developing effective therapeutic strategies. Key Insights from Recent Research
- [Metabolic Adaptation to Pathologic Milieu](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/metabolic-adaptation-to-pathologic-milieu/) - METABOLISM: A GUIDING FORCE FOR IMMMUNITY Metabolism in simple terms refers to the cellular reactions that lead to energy generation from food such as breaking down proteins into amino acids, carbohydrates into simple sugars such as glucose, fats into fatty acids, etc. It is organised into different metabolic pathways to maximise the capture of energy
- [Modulation of Peripheral Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/modulation-of-peripheral-tolerance/) - Introduction Immunological tolerance describes a diverse range of host processes that prevent potentially harmful immune responses within that host (1). A fundamental property of the immune system is its ability to mediate self-defense with minimal collateral damage to the host. The system uses several different mechanisms to achieve this goal, which is collectively referred to
- [Atypical B Cells: Unsung Heroes in the Fight Against Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/atypical-b-cells-unsung-heroes-in-the-fight-against-malaria/) - A new study reveals ABCs are key players in fighting infections like malaria, offering exciting possibilities for new treatments...
- [Stressful Signals: How Your Body Talks to Your Brain](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/stressful-signals-how-your-body-talks-to-your-brain/) - New research reveals a fascinating connection between chronic stress, the immune system, and the brain, potentially playing a role in depression...
- [Computational Modeling](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/previous-iuis-courses/iuis-immunoinformatics/computational-modeling/) - Developing a computational model is a multi-step process that typically requires: generation of a visual representation of the data translation of data into modelling mathematical expression simulation of dynamic parameters (e.g. time) of the model evaluation of the model properties simulation of how changes in parameters may affect the model These processes are part of
- [Immuno-Mexico 2024 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-mexico-2024/immuno-mexico-2024-introduction/) - [table id=280 /]
- [How T cells combat tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-t-cells-combat-tuberculosis/) - A recent study uncovered new insights into how our immune system fights TB...
- [Impacts of diet choice on your immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/impacts-of-diet-choice-on-your-immune-system/) - A recent study has compared the impacts of two diets: the plant-based vegan and the high-fat, low-carb keto diets on our immune system...
- [Interrogation of the T cell landscape in pediatric brain tumors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/interrogation-of-the-t-cell-landscape-in-pediatric-brain-tumors/) - Researchers observed a clonal expansion of tumor infiltrating T cells, suggesting the generation of anti-tumor immune responses...
- [An 8 year old boy with recurrent respiratory infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/primary-immunodeficiencies/an-8-year-old-boy-with-recurrent-respiratory-infections/) - Case of recurrent respiratory infections - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Hyper IgM syndrome and study of the immunology of the immunodeficiency
- [Case of recurrent infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/primary-immunodeficiencies/case-of-recurrent-infections/) - Case of recurrent infections - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) and study of immunology of the immunodeficiency
- [Breast milk – immune insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/breast-milk-immune-insights/) - In a recent breakthrough, researchers have shown the key role of an immune component found in breast milk, known as the complement system, in shaping the gut environment of infant mice...
- [Using AI for immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-ai-for-immunotherapy/) - In a new study, scientists have pioneered a cutting-edge approach harnessing the power of artificial intelligence (AI) to uncover promising targets for immunotherapy...
- [Remodelling of alveolar macrophages to combat Mycobacterium infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/remodelling-of-alveolar-macrophages-to-combat-mycobacterium-infection/) - Researchers examined, using a murine model, whether previous exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis leads to a reprogramming of alveolar macrophages...
- [Long COVID and complement activation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/long-covid-and-complement-activation/) - In a recent study, researchers have identified the complement system as playing a pivotal role in Long Covid...
- [Immunity to Pathogens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/immunity-to-pathogens/)
- [UCT Advanced Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/uct-advanced-immunology/)
- [VACFA AAVC 2020](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/vacfa-aavc-2020/)
- [Afribop 2020](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2020/)
- [10th IDA 2021](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/10th-ida-2021/)
- [AfriBop 2021](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2021/)
- [11th IDA 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/)
- [AfriBop 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/)
- [Lauren Cruywagen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2024/lauren-cruywagen/) - January 2024Lauren Cruywagen completed an undergraduate degree in Medical Biosciences at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. She earned an honours degree in Infectious Diseases and Immunology at the University of Cape Town (UCT).
- [Guillain-Barré syndrome – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/guillain-barre-syndrome-new-insights/) - In a recent study, researchers investigated the autoimmune factors related to Guillain-Barré syndrome, revealing a key aspect of its pathophysiology...
- [Cytokine storm – insights into new treatments](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cytokine-storm-insights-into-new-treatments/) - In a recent study, researchers identified a method to block IL-6 signals to treat cytokine release syndrome, with minimised side effects...
- [Inflammation and ALS – inhibition to reduce symptoms](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inflammation-and-als-inhibition-to-reduce-symptoms/) - A recent study revealed that immune cells are activated by neuronal changes in individuals with ALS...
- [Ambassadors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/) - Young immunologists who work to promote Immunopaedia and immunology education globally
- [Donate](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/donate-now/) - You can be involved in keeping Immunopaedia free and accessible to the world. Any donation will assist us with: Providing free global immunology education, Supporting online courses targeted towards students in low-middle income countries, Guiding health professionals in gaining CPD points
- [The gut microbiome and inflammation – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-gut-microbiome-and-inflammation-new-insights/) - Researchers uncovered a significant role played by beneficial commensal microbes in the gut: they stimulate the host to produce T cells that contribute to gut health by mitigating inflammation...
- [Breath of life – immune insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/breath-of-life-immune-insights/) - In a recent study, researchers investigate immune cell behavior during human lung development in embryos and fetuses...
- [Immunodeficiency and failure to thrive](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/primary-immunodeficiencies/immunodeficiency-and-failure-to-thrive/) - Case of immunodeficiency - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT) and study of the immunology and genetics of the disease
- [Fat cells and tumour growth](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/fat-cells-and-tumour-growth/) - Recent research reveals that breast cancer cells with p53 mutations can alter fat cells, leading to the development of an inflammatory environment that supports cancer growth by suppressing the immune response...
- [The role of JAK inhibitors in inflammation - new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-role-of-jak-inhibitors-in-inflammation-new-insights/) - In a recent study, researchers described the multifaceted roles of JAK inhibitors in inflammation, shedding light on the need for a more pragmatic approach in their application...
- [Vaccine development – new insights from epitopes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vaccine-development-new-insights-from-epitopes/) - A recent study introduced a method to pinpoint epitopes capable of eliciting safe immunization across diverse population segments for vaccine development...
- [Advancements in CAR T-Cell Therapy: A Promising Clinical Outlook](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/advancements-in-car-t-cell-therapy-a-promising-clinical-outlook/) - A recent phase 1 dose escalation trial has unveiled compelling data on a new wave of anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, marking a significant leap in the evolution of these therapies...
- [The battle against Herpes - insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-battle-against-herpes-insights/) - Recent research has shed light on the precise mechanisms by which the immune system counteracts HSV, particularly through interferons...
- [Unveiling Zika Virus' Multi-Purpose Enzyme: A Potential Therapeutic Target](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unveiling-zika-virus-multi-purpose-enzyme-a-potential-therapeutic-target/) - A recent study has shown the versatility of Zika virus' NS2B-NS3 enzyme, potentially identifying a vulnerability that could serve as a therapeutic target...
- [Michelle Letarte Tribute](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/michelle-letarte-tribute/) - The chair of the IUIS Education Committee (2006-2017) and has been involved in supporting students from the developing world to attend Immunology courses. She served as Past-Chair of the Committee from 2018-2023. She was also the head of the Immunopaedia Steering Committee.
- [Immunologist of the Month - 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/) - Immunologist of the Month Every month we will feature a new interview with an Immunologist. These Immunologists are at the cutting-edge of research and education, they have kindly offered to give us their time and insight into their research and studies. December 2023 Michelle Letarte Tribute Michelle Letarte was the chair of the IUIS Education Committee
- [Inflammaging - new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inflammaging-new-insights/) - Recent research delves into understanding the processes that drive chronic inflammation during aging, known as "inflammaging," and identifies potential strategies to mitigate age-related organ decline...
- [New insights: hypertension-induced dementia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-hypertension-induced-dementia/) - Research has described a potential link between the response of immune system cells surrounding the brain and cognitive decline associated with chronic high blood pressure
- [Accelerating Tuberculosis Vaccine Development: Insights from BCG Studies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/accelerating-tuberculosis-vaccine-development-insights-from-bcg-studies/) - A recent study introduces a promising method to expedite TB vaccine testing, potentially revolutionizing preventative measures against this persistent disease...
- [Novel immune cells unveil potential trigger for severe asthma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-immune-cells-unveil-potential-trigger-for-severe-asthma/) - Research has brought to light a new subset of immune cells believed to fuel severe asthma, primarily affecting men who develop this condition later in life...
- [Clive Gray](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/clive-gray/) - November 2023The founder and Director of Immunopaedia, Clive is also the president of the IUIS 2023 Congress and Vice-Chair of the IUIS Education Committee. Clive took some time to speak about his projects.
- [Food allergies and cardiovascular health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/food-allergies-and-cardiovascular-health/) - Research has shown a potentially vital link between common food allergens and an increased risk of heart disease-related mortality, even among individuals without apparent food allergies...
- [Immunopaedia Newsletter](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunopaedia-newsletter/) - Sign up for our Immunopaedia Newsletter We will send you an email filled with immunology and Immunopaedia news once a month. Don't worry we will not share your email address with anyone. Sign up below. You will receive an email to confirm your subscription.
- [Reprogramming Brain's Defense Cells into Neurons Aids Stroke Recovery](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/reprogramming-brains-defense-cells-into-neurons-aids-stroke-recovery/) - A new study has uncovered a promising avenue for treating stroke-induced brain injury by harnessing the power of immune cells to regenerate neurons...
- [Key immune threshold identified for SARS-CoV-2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/key-immune-threshold-identified-for-sars-cov-2/) - In a recent study, researchers have described a critical threshold of immunity to SARS-CoV-2...
- [The Microbiome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/the-microbiome/) - Introduction The term ‘microbiota’ defines the community of symbiotic microbes including bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, and protozoa that have established their own niches within a host and provide supporting roles in host immunity and metabolism. Some commensals organisms are often referred to as “pathobionts” because they can cause disease under certain conditions. The intestinal tract
- [Gut Mucosal Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/gut-mucosal-immunity/) - The GI tract Periodontitis is a multifactorial chronic inflammatory disease associated with the accumulation of dental plaque (referred to as dental biofilm/biofilm), characterized by the progressive destruction of the supporting structures of the teeth, including the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone. (Kwon et al., 2021) During inflammation, defense cells release certain endogenous biological molecules such
- [Unlocking the secrets of the thymus: a window into immune system aging](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unlocking-the-secrets-of-the-thymus-a-window-into-immune-system-aging/) - A recent study has uncovered that the rate of thymus transformation is connected to sex, age, and lifestyle, offering insights into the aging of the immune system itself...
- [AI and vaccine development for gonorrhea](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ai-and-vaccine-development-for-gonorrhea/) - In a new study, AI helped identify key vaccine components, paving the way for a potential gonorrhea vaccine...
- [Europe](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/europe/) - Immunopaedia Ambassadors who work from Europe
- [A sugar-enzyme link to tumour growth suppression](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-sugar-enzyme-link-to-tumour-growth-suppression/) - In a recent study, researchers have unravelled the mystery behind B4GALT3's role within the tumour immune microenvironment...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/grant-writing/) - All students will be involved in the grant writing exercise during the Immuno-Chile 2023 course. This is usually the favourite part of the course, and you will be working very hard during the week’s activities. This exercise will help prepare you for an essential and frequent activity of your life as a scientist. The module
- [Mycobacterium tuberculosis – cord formation and antibiotic resistance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mycobacterium-tuberculosis-cord-formation-and-antibiotic-resistance/) - A recent study has shown how generations of dividing Mycobacterium tuberculosis work together to form cords, which offer an advantage in resisting antibiotic treatment...
- [Mycobacteria have an albumin binding capacity - possible implications](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mycobacteria-have-an-albumin-binding-capacity-possible-implications/) - In recent paper, researchers show for the first time, the ability of mycobacteria, in particular Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, to bind albumin...
- [Equity, Diversity, Inclusion in Academia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/equity-diversity-inclusion-in-academia/) - Given the challenges surrounding inclusion of minorities in Science Technology, Engineering, Math and Medicine (STEMM), we propose to have a session focused on Equity, Diversity Inclusion (EDI) and Belonging. The session will highlight the current statistics on representation of women and minorities in science. These presentations will be followed by a hands-on, interactive session aimed
- [Inflammatory Bowel Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/inflammatory-bowel-disease/) - Genetics and Mechanisms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) encompasses chronic inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract, primarily including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Genetic factors are key contributors to IBD susceptibility, and understanding candidate genes is crucial to comprehend the disease's complex pathogenesis. Murine models serve as valuable tools to study
- [Viral Infections and Mucosal Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/viral-infections-and-mucosal-immunity/) - HIV, the Microbiome and Cellular Immunity HIV in infants Of the 2.1 million children under the age of 15 that live with HIV infection, 90% of those are in Sub-Saharan Africa. At least 1/3 of infants born in Sub-Saharan Africa have been exposed to maternal HIV infection and antiretroviral treatment. Majority of HIV is
- [Colorectal Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/colorectal-cancer/) - Colon carcinogenesis Carcinogenesis refers to the process by which normal cells transform into cancerous cells, and it involves genetic and epigenetic alterations that disrupt normal cellular functions, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Colon carcinogenesis is a stepwise process initiated by genetic and epigenetic alterations, leading to the activation of oncogenes (e.g., KRAS) and
- [Prior exposure to common virus may protect the fetus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/prior-exposure-to-common-virus-may-protect-the-fetus/) - researchers have shown that mothers who encounter CMV prior to pregnancy are significantly less likely to pass the virus on to their unborn children...
- [Andrea Cossarizza](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/andrea-cossarizza/) - October 2023Dr. Andrea Cossarizza is a distinguished immunologist. He holds the position of Full Professor of Pathology and Immunology at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, in Emilia-Romagna, Italy. Dr. Cossarizza is also the Director of the Flow Cytometry Core Facility and the Vice-Rector for Research.
- [Gut Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/gut-inflammation/) - Innate Epithelial Barrier Defense In the gastrointestinal tract it is of paramount importance to host health that the intestinal micro­biota is kept at a distance from intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), minimizing the likelihood of tissue damage and invasion. Innate immune strategies include the use of a mucus layer, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and innate lymphoid cells
- [Principles of Epigenetic Regulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/principles-of-epigenetic-regulation/) - Introduction Epigenetic mechanisms play a crucial role in regulating gene expression and immune responses. Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence itself but are instead influenced by factors such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs. Epigenetic changes can be influenced by both genetic
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/grant-writing/) - All students will be involved in the grant writing exercise during the Immuno-India 2023 course. This is usually the favourite part of the course, and you will be working very hard during the week’s activities. This exercise will help prepare you for an essential and frequent activity of your life as a scientist. The module
- [Immunometabolism and Therapeutic Applications of Epigenetic Modifiers](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/immunometabolism-and-therapeutic-applications-of-epigenetic-modifiers/) - Immune cell function, activation, cytokine secretion and antitumor effect depend on cellular metabolism and epigenetic modifications. This module will discuss the role and mechanism of metabolism and epigenetic modifications in immune cells regulation and immunotherapy. Epigenetic modifiers and immune checkpoints Epigenetic modifications involve molecular mechanisms affecting gene expression in a reversible, transmissible, and adaptive way
- [Cytomegalovirus – new insights into immune protection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cytomegalovirus-new-insights-into-immune-protection/) - Researchers have developed a new method to treat opportunistic viral infections such as Human cytomegalovirus, by enhancing the immune system itself, equipping it to fend off the virus autonomously without the need for antiviral medication...
- [New technique for targeted immunotherapy shows promise in mice](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-technique-for-targeted-immunotherapy-shows-promise-in-mice/) - Researchers have unveiled a novel approach to enhance the immune system's battle against solid tumours...
- [New insights into mosquito-to-human viral transmission](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-into-mosquito-to-human-viral-transmission/) - Researchers have made a new discovery regarding Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, shedding light on a potential breakthrough in the battle against mosquito-borne viruses like dengue, yellow fever, and Zika...
- [A Hidden Haven: how Leishmania parasites hide in our cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-hidden-haven-how-leishmania-parasites-hide-in-our-cells/) - Researchers made a significant discovery: the Leishmania donovani parasites reside within blood-related stem cells nestled in the bone marrow of chronically infected mice...
- [A new protein may be key in placental heath](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-new-protein-may-be-key-in-placental-heath/) - Scientists have uncovered a key protein that plays a role in the immune system during pregnancy, significantly influencing early placental health during pregnancy...
- [PAIA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/privacy-policy/paia/) - PAIA Manual Updated 20 July 2022 Download - PAIA-Immunopaedia Foundation NPC-English.pdf Download - PAIA-Immunopaedia Foundation NPC-Afrikaans.pdf Access to Information Download - Form 2 - Request For Access To Record-PAIA.pdf Download - Form 3 - Outcome Of Request And Of Fees Payable-PAIA.pdf
- [Elders’ vs new-borns and children – insights into immune phenotypes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/elders-vs-new-borns-and-children-insights-into-immune-phenotypes/) - Researchers have described new insights into “killer T cells,” also known as as CD8+ T cells.
- [New imaging agent – improved prediction of HER2 positive metastatic breast cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-imaging-agent-improved-prediction-of-metastatic-breast-cancer/) - Researchers have unveiled a novel imaging agent capable of predicting the early metabolic response to HER2-targeted treatment in patients with HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer...
- [Triple-negative breast cancer – a potential treatment on the horizon](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/triple-negative-breast-cancer-a-potential-treatment-on-the-horizon/) - Researchers have unveiled a double-acting strategy for combating the notoriously aggressive and challenging-to-treat triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC)...
- [Enhancing B Cell Memory: The Role of Autophagy and the RUBCN Protein](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/enhancing-b-cell-memory-the-role-of-autophagy-and-the-rubcn-protein/) - Researchers identified a shorter isoform of the protein Rubicon called RUBCN100. This isoform was found to enhance autophagy in B cells...
- [Cracking the Code of Implant Rejection – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cracking-the-code-of-implant-rejection-new-insights/) - In a recent study, scientists have pinpointed a protein named RAC2 as a significant player in the body's response to biomedical implants...
- [Neutrophils – new insights for clinical studies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/neutrophils-new-insights-for-clinical-studies/) - In a recent study, researchers have found a neutrophil population which is characterized by CD10+ALPL+ Neu and resistance to anti-PD-1 treatment...
- [Pedro Moraes-Vieira](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/pedro-moraes-vieira/) - September 2023 Dr. Moraes-Vieira's group uses obesity and infectious diseases as models to study how systemic metabolic alterations shape the immune system, aiming to provide novel insights into the mechanisms and therapeutic targets...
- [Maternal immunity: how mothers “remember” their babies and understanding pregnancy pathology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/maternal-immunity-how-mothers-remember-their-babies-and-understanding-pregnancy-pathology/) - Recently, researchers have demonstrated in mice, the profound and long-lasting nature of maternal immune adaptation during pregnancy...
- [A link: Atopic Dermatitis and Inflammatory Bowel Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-link-atopic-dermatitis-and-inflammatory-bowel-disease/) - Recently, a study has described an association between atopic dermatitis (AD) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), adding a new dimension to our understanding of these complex disorders...
- [Antibody diversity – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/antibody-diversity-new-insights/) - A recent study has shed light on the intricate DNA associations within B cells, revealing the heart of antibody diversity...
- [New biomarker for vascular dementia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-biomarker-for-vascular-dementia/) - Researchers described the pivotal role of the CCR5 receptor in the development of vascular dementia...
- [Our immune system…in space](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/our-immune-systemin-space/) - Researchers described the effects of weightlessness on T cells, a critical component of the immune system...
- [A high risk pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/mother-to-child-transmission/a-high-risk-pregnancy/) - Case of a high risk pregnancy - investigation and diagnosis of infant HIV status born to HIV positive mother with discussion on HIV maternity guidelines
- [kidney-on-a-chip – cancer and immune insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/kidney-on-a-chip-cancer-and-immune-insights/) - Researchers have made great progress in understanding how a novel class of immunotherapeutic drugs known as T cell bispecific antibodies (TCBs)...
- [Core Modules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/core-modules/) - Core Immunology Modules A Snapshot of the Immune System The Innate Immune System MHC & Antigen Presentation Overview of T Cell Subsets B Cell Activation and Plasma Cell Differentiation Antibody Structure and Classes
- [Introduction to Immuno-Chile 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-chile-2023/introduction-to-immuno-chile-2023/) - [table id=274 /]
- [Malaria vaccine – positive results within a Tanzanian cohort](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/malaria-vaccine-positive-results-within-a-tanzanian-cohort/) - Researchers have presented data from a malaria vaccine trial, demonstrating both safety and the capacity to induce an immune response in African infants...
- [Severe COVID-19 may change your innate immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/severe-covid-19-may-change-your-innate-immune-system/) - Researchers have uncovered how severe cases of COVID-19 can lead to enduring alterations in the innate immune system...
- [Using immune cells to predict flu](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-immune-cells-to-predict-flu/) - Researchers have described promising new approach for predicting whether an individual will develop symptoms after contracting the influenza virus.
- [Human-derived 3D model for Alzheimer's disease – immune insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/human-derived-3d-model-for-alzheimers-disease-immune-insights/) - Researchers have engineered a sophisticated 3D human cellular model designed to study Alzheimer's disease (AD)...
- [The landscape of human cornea – immune cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-landscape-of-human-cornea-immune-cells/) - Researchers have unveiled the immune cell landscape of a healthy human cornea, revolutionizing our understanding of its protective mechanisms against pathogens and diseases...
- [Enlarged Testicles](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/enlarged-testicles/) - Case of enlarged testicles - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Testicular TB plus study of immunology of Extra Pulmonary TB through the body.
- [Bettina Nadorp](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/bettina-nadorp/) - August 2023Dr. Bettina Nadorp is an Assistant Professor in the Departments of Medicine and Pathology at NYU Grossman School of Medicine. Dr Nadorp is using computational approaches for the analysis of single cell data in human leukemia.
- [Evaluating a Peptide-Based T-Cell Activating COVID-19 vaccine -  Insights from a Phase I/II Trial](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/evaluating-a-peptide-based-t-cell-activating-covid-19-vaccine-insights-from-a-phase-i-ii-trial/) - Researchers have presented findings from a Phase I/II clinical trial (NCT04954469) involving 54 patients with either congenital or acquired B-cell deficiency...
- [Core Modules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/core-modules/) - Core Immunology Modules A Snapshot of the Immune System The Innate Immune System MHC & Antigen Presentation Overview of T Cell Subsets B Cell Activation and Plasma Cell Differentiation Antibody Structure and Classes
- [Semester 2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-2/) - COMING SOON
- [Day 5 - Understanding of Host-Pathogen Interaction and Applications](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-tunisia-2021/day-5-understanding-of-host-pathogen-interaction-and-applications-sars-cov-2-covid/) - Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases and associated challenges - Koussay Dellagi Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases and associated challenges - Koussay Dellagi Immunology and immunopathology of COVID-19 - Miriam Merad Immunology and immunopathology of COVID-19 - Miriam Merad Computing approaches and Sars-CoV-2 variants - Fatma Guerfali Computing approaches and Sars-CoV-2 variants - Fatma
- [Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/) - Free information and educational immunology materials on the basics of the immune system, advanced immunology and special focus areas.
- [Online Courses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/) - Free online courses in immunology in partnership with the IUIS and other bodies. From basic immunology, cancers, vaccines and infectious diseases
- [Epigenetic (De)regulation in Immunodeficiency and Malignant Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/epigenetic-deregulation-in-immunodeficiency-and-malignant-diseases/) - Alternative splicing is a crucial process that enhances the diversity of genetic information in organisms. In humans, up to 94% of genes undergo alternative splicing. This process involves the removal of intronic sequences and the joining of exonic sequences in pre-mRNA, which is essential for gene expression in eukaryotes. The spliceosome, a ribonucleoprotein complex, catalyzes
- [Parkinson's disease – new insights into immune cell landscape](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/parkinsons-disease-new-insights-into-immune-cell-landscape/) - Researchers investigating Parkinson's disease, in a mouse model, revealed a significant shift in our understanding of neuroinflammatory mechanisms of the disease...
- [Epigenetic (De)regulation in Non-Malignant Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/epigenetic-deregulation-in-non-malignant-diseases/) - The concept of trained immunity Immunological memory is considered the ability of the immune system to respond more rapidly and effectively to pathogens that have been encountered previously It has long been thought that immunity conveyed by vaccines is solely based on the memory ability of the adaptive immune system Nowadays many studies have shown
- [Using a virus to treat Pancreatic Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-a-virus-to-treat-pancreatic-cancer/) - Researchers have described the development of a novel oncolytic virus (OV) called OV-mOX40L for the treatment of pancreatic cancer...
- [Declining CD4 count, despite viral suppression?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/drug-response/declining-cd4-count-despite-viral-suppression/) - Case study of declining CD4 count, despite viral suppression - investigation, diagnosis of drug toxicity to combination of Didanosine and Tenofovir plus immunological pathways.
- [A case of acute fever, rash and vomiting](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/hypersensitivity/a-case-of-acute-fever-rash-and-vomiting/) - A case study of acute fever and rash - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Immune Hypersensitivity reaction to Abacavir plus discussion of the ARV drug pathways.
- [More robust immune systems in children from rural areas](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/more-robust-immune-systems-in-children-from-rural-areas/) - Researhcers have described the significant impact of early-life environment on children's immune system development...
- [Immuno-India 2023 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-india-2023/immuno-india-2023-introduction/) - [table id=271 /]
- [Mapping macrophage diversity in liver diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mapping-macrophage-diversity-in-liver-diseases/) - Researchers have described the hepatic immune landscape, focusing particularly on the dynamic nature of liver macrophages and their significance in various liver diseases...
- [T cells and type 1 diabetes prevention](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cells-and-type-1-diabetes-prevention/) - Researchers have described a promising approach to identify individuals at risk of developing type 1 diabetes, a severe autoimmune disease, by analyzing T cells in the blood...
- [The potential of T cell activation markers for TB diagnostic development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-potential-of-t-cell-activation-markers-for-tb-diagnostic-development/) - In a recent paper, researchers tested the diagnostic capability of a simplified T cell activation markers (TAM)-based TB assay...
- [Matt Witkowski](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/matt-witkowski/) - July 2023Dr. Matt Witkowski is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus. Dr. Witkowski holds a PhD from the University of Melbourne/Walter and Eliza Hall Institute and was a Postdoctoral Fellow at Aifantis...
- [Immunoregulation in the brain – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immunoregulation-in-the-brain-new-insights/) - Exciting new research has shed light on how our brains adapt our behaviour in response to infections or injuries...
- [Mitchondrial disorder linked to a weaker immune response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/mitchondrial-disorder-linked-to-a-weaker-immune-response/) - Researchers showed that altered B cell function in children with mitochondrial disorders, leads to a weaker and less diverse antibody response to viral infections...
- [Cancer Vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/cancer-vaccines/) - Introduction Cancer is a major health problem worldwide and one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in children and adults. The lethality of malignant tumours is due to their uncontrolled growth within normal tissues, causing damage and functional impairment. These malignant phenotypes of cancers can result from 1) defective regulation of cell
- [Immune Landscape of the Tumour](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/immune-landscape-of-the-tumour/) - Immune response in Cancer The immune response to cancer based on the cancer immunoediting concept ,is best described as a specialized case of immunity in which cells make their way from normalcy to a neoplastic growth state, more specifically acquire capabilities that are essential to forming a malignant tumour. The immune surveillance constantly checks out
- [Flow Cytometry](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/flow-cytometry/) - Flow cytometry has become one of the most important tools in immunology research. The basic principle of this technique is the fluorometric analysis of samples on a single cell level. In the following section detailed information on flow cytometry will be provided including: Principles of Fluorescence Fluorochromes (definition, functions, different types) Principles of a Flow
- [Allergen sensitization – insights into atopic dermatitis and other skin disorders](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/allergen-sensitization-insights-into-atopic-dermatitis-and-other-skin-disorders/) - Researchers investigated interleukin (IL)-31 and its role in the pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis through the maintainnance of an inflammatory state and pruritus..
- [Key discovery in our battle against HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/key-discovery-in-our-battle-against-hiv/) - Researchers have made a significant discovery about memory CD4+ T lymphocytes, crucial players in our immune response, in the context of HIV infection...
- [Central and Peripheral Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/central-and-peripheral-tolerance/) - Introduction Erlich put forward the term ‘horror autotoxicus’ to refer to the body’s aversion to immunological self-destruction, and postulated that mechanisms must prevent reaction against self Healthy individuals have a smouldering autoimmune response that can escape control (a system of many checks and balances) to cause autoimmune disorders A major area of interest is how
- [Overview of T Cell Subsets](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/overview-of-t-cell-subsets/) - Introduction The T cell repertoire in a healthy adult is shaped by thymic selection (positive and negative), where naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells can then interact, and be primed, with “foreign” antigen in the secondary lymphoid tissues Antigen engagement via the T cell receptor (TCR) then shapes the repertoire of antigen-specific T cells and most likely the functional attributes of the T
- [The Innate Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/the-innate-immune-system/) - Mononuclear Phagocytes Produce Key Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines Mononuclear phagocytes (monocytes and macrophages) are essential for the development of inflammation and together with neutrophils are the phagocytic cells involved in the clearance of inert particles and microbial agents. Monocytes are bone marrow-derived cells and are continuously released into the blood. When these cells are recruited
- [Ontogeny of the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/ontogeny-of-the-immune-system/) - Introduction Available evidence suggests that the lymphoid system consists of two compartments, as shown in Figure 1: A central compartment in which stem cells originating in the bone marrow proliferate and differentiate in the bone marrow and thymus independent of antigen contact (i.e., antigen-independent differentiation) A peripheral compartment consisting of lymph nodes, spleen, and Mucosal-Associated-Lymphoid-Tissue
- [IUIS Courses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/) - IUIS Courses
- [MS, inflammation and the brain – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/ms-inflammation-and-the-brain-new-insights/) - Researchers have gained new insights into understanding the mechanisms underlying brain damage in progressive multiple sclerosis (MS)...
- [Semester 1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/semester-1/)
- [TIGRIS](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/tigris/)
- [How melanoma evades the immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-melanoma-evades-the-immune-system/) - In a new study, researchers have described how melanoma evades the immune system...
- [B cells and PCOS](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/b-cells-and-pcos/) - Scientists have described the impact of B cells on the development of Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)...
- [Single-cell RNA sequencing – new insights into cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/single-cell-rna-sequencing-new-insights-into-cancer/) - Recently, researchers have described the evolution of the tumor microenvironment during the progression of gastric cancer...
- [New insights into inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-into-inflammation/) - Researchers have made significant progress in our understanding of the intricate cellular process responsible for triggering a crucial inflammatory response in the body...
- [How metabolic rewiring influences macrophage function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-metabolic-rewiring-influences-macrophage-function/) - In a recent paper, researchers studied how macrophage fumarate hydratase restrains mtRNA-mediated interferon production...
- [Immunobiology of Leukemia & Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/immunobiology-of-leukemia-therapies/) - Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML) is a molecular heterogeneous, haematological malignancy with variable response to treatments. AML is characterized by bone marrow and tissue infiltration with proliferative, clonal, abnormally differentiated cells of hematopoietic origin. AML prognosis is currently determined by increasing age, white blood cell counts at diagnosis, cytogenetic abnormalities, and molecular lesions. Nearly all AML
- [Nicholas Woudberg](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/nicholas-woudberg/) - An interview with Dr. Nicholas Woudberg who is the Head of Scientific Strategies at Synexa Life Sciences (https://synexagroup.com/). The interview explores moving from academia to industry
- [Early loss of a parent may impact our immune systems](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/early-loss-of-a-parent-may-impact-our-immune-systems/) - A recent paper has shed light on the long-term impact of parental loss or separation on immune function in late life...
- [Cancer Cellular Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/cancer-cellular-therapies/) - Cell based cancer therapies involve the use of living cells to treat cancer. There are several types of cell-based cancer therapies, including but not limited to CAR- T cell therapy (1), Dendritic cell therapy (2) Tumour Infiltrating Lymphocyte (TIL) therapy (3), and Natural Killer cell therapy (4) and Gamma Delta T cell therapy (5). Most
- [Lupus and the microbiome – the flare](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/lupus-and-the-microbiome-the-flare/) - Researchers have described the link between the growth of a specific gut bacterium, Ruminococcus (blautia) gnavus, to recurrent episodes of lupus...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/grant-writing/) - All students will be involved in the grant writing exercise during the Immuno-Morocco course. This is usually the favourite part of the course, and you will be working very hard during the week’s activities. This exercise will help prepare you for an essential and frequent activity of your life as a scientist. The module attached
- [Targeting the Tumour Microenvironment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/targeting-the-tumour-microenvironment/) - Targeting the Tumour Microenvironment Tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex, dynamic battlefield for both immune cells and tumour cells. TME is composed of tumour cells, various cytokines, chemokines, proteases, many enzymes, macrovesicles, and other secreted molecules. TME mainly consists of cancer-associated fibroblast (CAFs), endothelial cells, immune cells (like tumour associated macrophages (TAMs)), myeloid derived suppressor
- [Anti-tumour T-cell activation from B-cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/anti-tumour-t-cell-activation-from-b-cells/) - Using advanced molecular techniques researchers characterised various types of B-cells during the growth of melanoma and monitored gene expression patterns.
- [Making cancer immunotherapy safer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/making-cancer-immunotherapy-safer/) - Researchers have provided valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms through which PD-1 maintains the integrity of healthy tissues...
- [Genetics and allergies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/genetics-and-allergies/) - Researchers have described why certain individuals are more susceptible to allergies than others, identifying a key protein called ETS1...
- [Autoantibodies in Systemic Autoimmune Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/autoantibodies-in-systemic-autoimmune-diseases/) - 09 June 2023 .In this study, researchers correlated a positive ANA-specific antibody result with the ANA patterns and we also analyzed anti-ds DNA antibody results for these patients’ samples...
- [The Day of Immunology 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/the-day-of-immunology-2022/) - 29th April is the Day of Immunology, this year Immunopaedia Ambassadors in collaboration with the European Federation of Immunological Societies (EFIS), young EFIS and the International Union of Immunological Societies took part in a social media campaign celebrating and the day of immunology. The theme for 2022 was vaccines. Immunopaedia Ambassadors were asked: 1. Why are you passionate about
- [Stress mediated stirring up of the immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/stress-mediated-stirring-up-of-the-immune-system/) - 07 June 2023 Recently published research outlines the mechanisms of psychological stress on the immune system...
- [New insights - drug resistance malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-drug-resistance-malaria/) - 05 June 2023 In a recent paper, scientists have discovered a drug resistance mechanism in one of the most dangerous malaria parasites affecting humans...
- [Decoding HIV – insights from an animal model](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/decoding-hiv-insights-from-an-animal-model/) - 31 May 2023 In a recent scholarly article, researchers have made efforts to elucidate the phenomenon of HIV remission in at least five individuals following a stem cell transplant...
- [Omalla Allan Olwenyi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/omalla-allan-olwenyi/) - May 2023Dr. Omalla Allan Olwenyi completed a PhD in Immunology, Pathology and Infectious Diseases at University of Nebraska Medical Centre, USA studying immune dynamics associated with SIV persistence. He is now the Technical Director of the Flow Cytometry Core at Creighton University in Omaha Nebraska, USA.
- [Smallpox vaccine for mpox?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/smallpox-vaccine-for-mpox/) - 29 May 2023 In a recent academic paper, researchers have presented compelling evidence demonstrating that vaccines administered against smallpox until the mid-1970s confer enduring cross-reactive immunity to mpox, previously referred to as monkeypox...
- [Single cell profiling at the maternal–fetal interface - insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/single-cell-profiling-at-the-maternal-fetal-interface-insights/) - 26 May 2023 In a recently published paper, researchers investigated the mechanisms that underlie the timing of labour in humans, particularly spontaneous preterm labour, which is associated with increased perinatal mortality and morbidity...
- [A skin patch for peanut allergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-skin-patch-for-peanut-allergy/) - 25 May 2023 A recent clinical trial has shown that a "peanut patch" worn on the skin could provide protection for toddlers with potentially life-threatening peanut allergies...
- [A positive sign for prostate cancer treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-positive-sign-for-prostate-cancer-treatment/) - 22 May 2023 A recent phase 2 study suggests that a new drug called enoblituzumab is safe for men with aggressive prostate cancer and may have a positive effect on cancer throughout the body...
- [Inflammatory bowel disease – mapping the immune system of the gut](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inflammatory-bowel-disease-mapping-the-immune-system-of-the-gut/) - 19 May 2023 A recent study has successfully mapped the immune system within the gastrointestinal tract of children who suffer from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)...
- [TB and HIV – an enhanced antibody response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/tb-and-hiv-an-enhanced-antibody-response/) - 17 May 2023 A recent study revealed that individuals living with HIV, who have also experienced pulmonary tuberculosis, exhibit more extensive and powerful HIV antibody responses compared to those without any history of tuberculosis...
- [Rose Nabatanzi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/rose-magala/) - April 2023Post-doctoral scientist at Makerere University College of Health Sciences (MakCHS) under the Infectious Diseases Institute (IDI) within the NIH-Fogarty capacity building grant. Dr Nabatanzi manages the Immunology Laboratory, directly supervising ten scientists.
- [Modelling the brain – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/modelling-the-brain-new-insights/) - 15 May 2023 In a new study, researchers examined patient-derived microglia from children macrocephalic autism to understand how the brain environment influences their development and function...
- [How some individuals with immunodeficiency defend themselves against infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-some-individuals-with-immunodeficiency-defend-themselves-to-infection/) - 10 May 2023 According to a recent study, the immune system defends the body from pathogens that are known to cause serious illnesses like COVID-19 and tuberculosis...
- [Using gamma T cells to fight TNBC](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-gamma-t-cells-to-fight-tnbc/) - 08 May 2023 Researchers have recently discovered that breast cancer stem cells evade the immune system by coordinating changes in their differentiation and metabolism...
- [PSGL-1 regulates CD8+ T Cell Exhaustion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/psgl-1-regulates-cd8-t-cell-exhaustion/) - 04 May 2023 In a recent study, researchers described the role of a protein called PSGL-1 in the regulation of T cell exhaustion...
- [Chronic transplant rejection – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/chronic-transplant-rejection-new-insights/) - 27 April 2023 In a recent study, scientists discovered pathways that may be therapeutically targeted to enhance patient outcomes and have described a kind of immune cell that causes chronic organ transplant failure in a mouse model of kidney transplantation...
- [Clear cell renal cell carcinoma – new “spatial,” insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/clear-cell-renal-cell-carcinoma-new-spatial-insights/) - 28 April 2023 In a recent study, researchers found that outcomes of patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma may be predicted by the spatial arrangement of immune cells in the tumour microenvironment...
- [Possible new treatment for rheumatoid arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/possible-new-treatment-for-rheumatoid-arthritis/) - 25 April 2023 In a recent study, scientists created a biodegradable polymer system that works with the strength of the human immune system to treat the autoimmune and inflammatory illness rheumatoid arthritis...
- [Using lab grown organs to test vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-lab-grown-organs-to-test-vaccines/) - 21 April 2023 In a recent study, scientists created a brand-new testing platform comprising B cells into tiny organoids with the aim to speed up vaccination screening and significantly lower the requirement for animals...
- [Cancer Antibody Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/cancer-antibody-therapies/) - Cancer Immunoediting: Immunosurveillance, Equilibrium, and Escape The immune system plays an essential role in immunosurveillance, as immune cells of the adaptive and innate immune systems infiltrate into the tumour microenvironment (TME); contributing to the modulation of tumour progression (fig.1). The immunoediting hypothesis is composed of three phases (Fig. 1). The first phase is
- [Core Modules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/core-modules/) - Selected Core Immunology Modules A Snapshot of the Immune System The Innate Immune System MHC & Antigen Presentation Overview of T Cell Subsets gamma/delta T cells B Cell Activation and Plasma Cell Differentiation Antibody Structure and Classes Cancer Epidemiology and Aetiology
- [Immunity in centenarians – keys to life?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immunity-in-centenarians-keys-to-life/) - 20 April 2023 According to a recent study, centenarians have immune systems that are highly functioning, have effectively adapted to a history of illness, and have unique immune cell types with diverse compositions and activities...
- [Improving pancreatic cancer therapy - insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/improving-pancreatic-cancer-therapy-insights/) - 19 April 2023 In a recent review, scientists presented numerous key themes in the biology of pancreatic cancer that can act as identifiers for pancreatic cancer therapy, offering substantial insight into the field of pancreatic cancer research...
- [Immuno-Morocco 2023 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-morocco-2023/introduction/) - [table id=267 /]
- [The early stages of HIV infection – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-early-stages-of-hiv-infection-new-insights/) - 17 April 2023 A group of researchers recently published a paper outlining the processes underpinning the capture of HIV-1 viruses in dendritic cells as well as the function that Siglec-1 serves in the trafficking and capture of the viral particles...
- [Phosphatidylserine-positive extracellular vesicles - boosting effector CD8+ T cell responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/phosphatidylserine-positive-extracellular-vesicles-boosting-effector-cd8-t-cell-responses/) - 14 April 2023 A new study has shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role in boosting T cell effector functions during viral infections...
- [Regulatory T cells – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/regulatory-t-cells-new-insights/) - 12 April 2023 Recently, researchers have described a regulatory class of human T cells which are derived from two distinct origins, one connected to autoimmunity and the other to protective immunity...
- [How neutrophils can be used to fight cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-neutrophils-can-be-used-to-fight-cancer/) - 10 April 2023 Researchers have highlighted the significance of white blood cells known as neutrophils in eliminating solid tumours...
- [New insights into mechanisms of HIV infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-into-mechanisms-of-hiv-infection/) - 03 April 2023 A recent study from a group of scientists showed that circulating white blood cells called monocytes can be used to detect a persistent reservoir of HIV genes...
- [Lorna Gcanga](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/lorna-gcanga/) - March 2023Postdoctoral research fellow hosted by the Brombacher and Guler Lab based at the Division of Immunology, University of Cape Town and ICGEB. Her recent publication was awarded first prize by the IDM postgraduate publication competition for the original publication category.
- [Enhancing the immune system to fight TB infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/enhancing-the-immune-system-to-fight-tb-infection/) - 29 March 2023 In a recent study, researchers discovered that fighting diseases that take root inside our cells, like TB, requires the body's process of removing old and injured cell components...
- [COVID-19 and HIV – how antibody responses are affected](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/covid-19-and-hiv-how-antibody-responses-are-affected/) - 27 March 2023 In a recent study, researchers looked at how patient traits and COVID-19 infection may impact HIV-positive individuals' antibody responses...
- [The immune system and liver disease – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immune-system-and-liver-disease-new-insights/) - 24 March 2023 In a recent study, researchers have identified the molecular process underpinning the suppression of T-cell defence...
- [The immune system – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immune-system-new-insights/) - 22 March 2023 Researchers have developed a completely new theory about how immune cells identify dangers like viruses in a recent study. The finding may help scientists create better vaccines and acquire a better understanding of autoimmune conditions and allergies...
- [Is trained immunity impacted by revaccination or BCG dose?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/is-trained-immunity-impacted-by-revaccination-or-bcg-dose/) - 20 March 2023 Recently, through a randomized placebo-controlled trial, researchers investigated the effects of revaccination with BCG , a high-dose of BCG and a standard dose of BCG on the trained immunity in a cohort of 51 healthy adult volunteers...
- [Is salt bad for you? Starving immune regulators of energy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/is-salt-bad-for-you-starving-immune-regulators-of-energy/) - 15 February 2023 Researchers have recently demonstrated that Regulatory T cells make sure that immunological responses take place in a regulated manner. However, consuming too much salt impairs the energy supply of these cells, making them temporarily dysfunctional. This could influence autoimmunity...
- [Inflammation in soft gums - insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inflammation-in-soft-gums-insights/) - 17 March 2023 Researchers have now found that gingiva stiffness affects gingival fibroblast characteristics, which in turn affects whether inflammation is likely to develop and makes it challenging to create gingival fibres...
- [The role of T cells in Alzheimer's disease – novel insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-role-of-t-cells-in-alzheimers-disease-novel-insights/) - 15 March 2023 According to a new study, microglia collaborate with T cells, another form of immune cell, to induce neurodegeneration which may play a role in the development of Alzheimer's disease...
- [COVID-19 – creating a vaccine that can change with the virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/covid-19-creating-a-vaccine-that-can-change-with-the-virus/) - 13 March 2023 In a recent study, scientists used machine learning to create a unique COVID-19 vaccine that targets the stimulation of T cells and is intended to be a pan-variant vaccine...
- [Adverse event following routine vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/hypersensitivity/adverse-event-following-routine-vaccination/) - Case study of adverse reaction to vaccination - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Arthus reaction plus discussion on hypersensitivity reactions types and pathways.
- [An unusual cause of fulminant hepatitis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/infectious-diseases/an-unusual-cause-of-fulminant-hepatitis/) - Case study of fulminant hepatitis - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and immunology and genetics of cause the disease.
- [Eliminating metastatic breast cancer in mice – immunotherapy insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/eliminating-metastatic-breast-cancer-in-mice-immunotherapy-insights/) - 10 March 2023 Recently, scientists discovered a method to make chemotherapy more effective against metastatic breast cancer that has expanded to the bone...
- [How immune cells fight chronic infection or disease - new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-immune-cells-fight-chronic-infection-or-disease-new-insights/) - 08 March 2023 Specific immune cells have been found to hold the secret to dealing with the prolonged battle against a chronic illness, according to researchers...
- [Specific B cell targeting to treat lupus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/specific-b-cell-targeting-to-treat-lupus/) - 06 March 2023 According to a recent study, age-associated B cells, or ABCs, are an immune cell type that play a significant role in the development of lupus...
- [Why prematurely born babies are more susceptible to infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-prematurely-born-babies-are-more-susceptible-to-infection/) - 03 March 2023 In a recent study, scientists figured out why prematurely born infants' immune systems don't function as well as they should after delivery. There is a greater chance of complications that could be life-threatening the sooner the infants are delivered...
- [What drives allergic asthma? New insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-drives-allergic-asthma-new-insights/) - 01 March 2023 Allergic asthma can also last into adulthood. According to a recent study, the interaction of immune cells and nerves in the lungs can add to the emergence of this disease...
- [First COVID-19 vaccination may affect booster shot efficacy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/first-covid-19-vaccination-may-affect-booster-shot-efficacy/) - 27 February 2023 The antibodies produced by your initial COVID vaccination or infection may adversely impact later booster injections, according to recent research...
- [Defining more roles for Natural Killer cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/defining-more-roles-for-natural-killer-cells/) - 24 February 2023 In a recent study, scientists revealed a previously unrecognised function of natural killer (NK) immune cells, which have improved our knowledge of how the immune system is controlled to avoid disease...
- [A potential cure for HIV may exist in stem cell transplantation – however…](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-potential-cure-for-hiv-may-exist-in-stem-cell-transplantation-however/) - 23 February 2023 According to a recent study, a man who received a stem cell transplant to address his cancer also showed signs of being HIV-free after the operation...
- [Ismail Sebina](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/ismail-sebina/) - February 2023Postdoctoral position in the laboratory of Dr Simon Phipp sat QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute in Australia. Here, I am actively investigating the influence of genetic and environmental factors on immune development in early-life.
- [Priming the immune response with ginger](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/priming-the-immune-response-with-ginger/) - 20 February 2023 White blood cells are put on high alert when exposed to modest amounts of a pungent ginger component, according to a recent study...
- [T-cell protection against pneumococcal disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cell-protection-against-pneumococcal-disease/) - 17 February 2023 In a recent study, scientists demonstrated how a distinct subgroup of lung T regulatory cells provides resistance to bacteraemic pneumonia...
- [Blocking SARS-CoV-2 infection – new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/blocking-sars-cov-2-infection-new-insights/) - 13 February 2023 In a recent study, scientists examined the impact of mucociliary active molecules on the in vitro infection of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)...
- [Core Modules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/core-modules/) - Selected Core Immunology Modules A Snapshot of the Immune System The Innate Immune System MHC & Antigen Presentation Overview of T Cell Subsets Gamma-Delta T cells
- [Core Modules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/core-modules/) - Selected Core Immunology Modules A Snapshot of the Immune System The Innate Immune System MHC & Antigen Presentation Overview of T Cell Subsets B Cell Activation and Plasma Cell Differentiation Antibody Structure and Classes
- [T cell exhaustion- new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cell-exhaustion-new-insights/) - 06 February 2023 Researchers have just discovered a gene that exhausts T cells, which might provide new avenues for developing more potent immunotherapies...
- [Do your genetics make you more susceptible to infections?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/do-your-genetics-make-you-more-susceptible-to-infections/) - 03 February 2023 A novel genetic condition that causes immunodeficiency and a severe sensitivity to opportunistic infections, including a fatal fungal pneumonia, has been identified by researchers in a recent study...
- [New TB drug regimen may not work against TB meningitis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-tb-drug-regimen-may-not-work-against-tb-meningitis/) - 01 February 2023 Researchers demonstrated in a recent paper that the FDA-approved regimen of three antibiotics, bedaquiline, pretomanid, and linezolid (BPaL), used to treat TB of the lungs caused by MDR strains, is ineffective in treating TB meningitis...
- [Fundamentals of Immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/fundamentals-of-immunology/) - The host, via its immune system, has the capacity to recognize materials as foreign to itself and to neutralize, eliminate, or metabolize them with or without injury to its own tissue(s). Some of these foreign materials can be referred to as antigens and could be entire micro-organisms like bacteria, fragments of them or substances produced
- [EULAR Symposium](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/eular-symposium/) - Autoimmunity The immune system normally works to defend the body and eliminate infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and other invading microbes. If a person has an autoimmune disease, the immune system mistakenly attacks self, targeting the cells, tissues, and organs of a person's own body. Break in “Tolerance” There are more than 80 different kinds
- [Infectious Diseases Symposium](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/infectious-diseases-symposium/) - Autoimmune diseases and Malaria infection Risk factors are genetic and environmental including infection exposure In malaria infection a variety of autoantibodies have been detected Anti-dsDNA Rheumatoid Factor Anti- Brain antigens Anti- Erythrocyte antigens Long term impact is unclear Thymus and T cell Development The thymus is essential to produce T-cells Rearrangement of T-cell
- [Integrating Immunology & Infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/integrating-immunology-infection/) - Protective immunity against Helminths Tissue dependent TH cells are critical Limiting host pathology by tissue repair Granulomas “weep & sweep” reaction Antibody‐mediated passive immunity Antibody‐dependent cellular cytotoxicity Toxoplasma gondii development Eukaryotic microparasite Obligate intracellular replication Ubiquitous - global distribution High prevalence (30% globally in humans) Causes zoonotic infection Felids are final hosts Acute,
- [Fundamentals of Infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/fundamentals-of-infection/) - Systems Immunology Implementation Science The scientific study of the use of strategies to adopt and integrate evidence based health interventions into clinical and community settings in order to improve patient outcomes and benefit population health. Implementation research seeks to understand the behavior of: healthcare professionals and support staff healthcare organizations, Healthcare consumers and
- [Epstein-Barr virus – novel insights into the immune response to the virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/epstein-barr-virus-novel-insights-into-the-immune-response-to-the-virus/) - 30 January 2023 In a recent paper, a group of researchers have discovered a particular immunological response to the Epstein-Barr virus which may be a potential target for vaccine development...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/afribop-2022/grant-writing/) - Download the Presentation and Instructions:
- [Novel insights into the treatment of lupus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-insights-into-the-treatment-of-lupus/) - 26 January 2023 In a mouse model of SLE, researchers have now learned that inhibiting an iron absorption receptor lowers disease pathology and boosts the activity of regulatory T cells that fight inflammation...
- [COVID-19 and the innate immune system – long term effects](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/covid-19-and-the-innate-immune-system-long-term-effects/) - 23 January 2023 According to a new study, immune cells like dendritic cells, which are essential for the immune system's activation, recover more slowly the more serious the COVID-19 infection is...
- [Immune response diversity driven by B cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immune-response-diversity-driven-by-b-cells/) - 20 January 2023 Researchers have just published a report that describes the event in detail and hypothesises that high-affinity B cells, which in the early stages displace inferior B cells, are what cause a reversal in late-stage germinal centres...
- [Understanding gut inflammation using caterpillars](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/understanding-gut-inflammation-using-caterpillars/) - 19 January 2023 Recently, researchers began working to develop non-mammalian alternatives that could reduce the number of rodents used in biomedical research and one that could also lower costs and accelerate results. These researchers decided to make use of caterpillars...
- [Immuno-Zambia 2022 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immuno-zambia-2022-introduction/) - Video Credit: Gabriela Zamora-Herrera 46 students from 15 African countries including 12 participants from Zambia and additional students from Mexico, Croatia and India, plus a faculty of 21 from various African countries and Canada, Germany, France, Mexico, and USA joined in Lusaka/Zambia for the one-week interactive course on the “big four” (HIV, tuberculosis, malaria,
- [Ambassador of the Month - 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/2022-ambassador-of-the-month/) - November 2022 Faisal Nuhu is originally from Ghana. He undertook his undergraduate studies in Biological Sciences at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. Faisal is currently a PhD candidate in the Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Department at University of Manitoba. Research Interests: HIV infection is still a global burden, and a lot
- [Oceania](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/our-ambassadors/oceania/) - Immunopaedia Ambassadors from Oceania
- [Paul Ogongo](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2023/paul-ogongo/) - January 2023A Postdoctoral Scholar and Fellow with Prof. Joel Ernst at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) where the primary interest of his research is investigating the role of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)-antigen...
- [Vaccines and respiratory viruses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vaccines-and-respiratory-viruses/) - 16 January 2023 Vaccinations that offer long-lasting protection against influenza, coronaviruses, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) have been challenging to create; recent research has now investigated the problems and outlined alternatives to better vaccines...
- [Insights into the mechanism lung cancers use to evade the immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/insights-into-the-mechanism-lung-cancers-use-to-evade-the-immune-system/) - 13 January 2023 In a recent study, a group of researchers revealed a protein that is frequently present in lung cancer cells at high levels and that regulates a crucial immunosuppressive pathway that enables lung tumours to avoid immune response...
- [Newly discovered IFN-γ role in Metabolic reprogramming to support Tumor Evasion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/newly-discovered-ifn-γ-role-in-metabolic-reprogramming-to-support-tumor-evasion/) - 11 January 2023 In a recent publication, Researcher have found a new role of IFN- γ in supporting Tumor cells to form a Suppressive Tumor Microenvironment (TME) via STAT3...
- [A vaccine for brain cancer?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-vaccine-for-brain-cancer/) - 09 January 2023 In a recent study, scientists created live tumour cells using the genome editing technology CRISPR-Cas9, then modified them to secrete a substance that kills tumour cells...
- [COVID-19 vaccination may offer cancer protection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/covid-19-vaccination-may-offer-cancer-protection/) - 06 January 2023 In a recent study, researchers have shown that recipients of the COVID-19 vaccine had a strong immune response, even in the presence of blood malignancy...
- [Novel therapy to reduce immune rejection of transplant cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-therapy-to-reducie-immune-rejection-of-transplant-cells/) - 04 January 2023 Researchers have just published a unique, possibly life-saving method that may stop antibodies from causing the immune system to reject designed therapeutic and transplant cells...
- [Why we lose our smell – COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/why-we-lose-our-smell-covid-19/) - 30 December 2022 In a recent study, researchers found a connection between a persistent immune attack on olfactory nerve cells and the failure of certain persons to recover their sense of smell following COVID-19...
- [Insights into the regulation of inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/insights-into-the-regulation-of-inflammation/) - 21 December 2022 In a recent publication, scientists made a big advancement in their knowledge of how inflammation is controlled...
- [Blood clotting – insights into sepsis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/blood-clotting-insights-into-sepsis/) - 19 December 2022 In a recent study, researchers are now focusing on sepsis after discovering a unique mechanism for platelet activation in pathogenic blood clotting/thrombosis...
- [Immunity to Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immunity-to-malaria/) - Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic infection, caused by an intracellular parasite, the protozoan Plasmodium spp. It affects most tropical areas around the world where mosquitos of the Anopheles genus are located. Around 200 to 400 million people are infected each year, resulting in approximately 400,000 deaths annually. It typically causes morbidity and mortality in infants
- [Immunologist of the Month - 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/) - Immunologist of the Month Every month we will feature a new interview with an Immunologist. These Immunologists are at the cutting-edge of research and education, they have kindly offered to give us their time and insight into their research and studies. November 2022 Thomas Murooka I obtained my Bachelor’s degree at the University of British Columbia
- [Immunity to Viral Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immunity-to-viral-infections/) - Introduction Viruses are infectious agents that only replicate inside of living cells. Figure 1 describes how some viruses are known to go through different layers of defence in order to establish themselves within the human body. The viral replication cycle follows a typical routine: Attachment and entry: The virus attaches to the host cell membrane via
- [Immunity to Schistosomiasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immunity-to-schistosomiasis/) - Human schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis or bilharzia is a neglected tropical parasitic disease (NTD) caused by blood-dwelling fluke worms of the genus Schistosoma. The three main schistosome species infecting humans are: S mansoni, transmitted by Biomphalaria snails and causes intestinal and hepatic schistosomiasis; S haematobium, transmitted by Bulinus snails and causes urinary and female genital schistosomiasis; and
- [Immunity to Tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immunity-to-tuberculosis/) - Overview of TB disease Tuberculosis is the leading cause of death among infectious diseases globally, caused by infection with the airborne bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis Difficult to diagnose and difficult to treat, TB cure requires 6 months of antibiotic treatment with side effects which challenge adherence, whereas treatment interruption permits emergence of drug resistant TB
- [Immunity to SARS-CoV2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immunity-to-sars-cov2/) - SARS-CoV-2 origin and transmission Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), first identified in December 2019, is the etiological agent of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Genomic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated that the virus has a receptor binding domain in the spike (S) protein that the virus uses to bind to human or human-like Angiotensin Converting
- [Respiratory infections – common (in) cold (temperatures)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/respiratory-infections-common-in-cold-temperatures/) - 12 December 2022 In a recent study, scientists uncovered an immune response that fights off viruses that cause upper respiratory infections within the nose. Further research found that cooler temperatures impair this defensive response, increasing the likelihood of an infection...
- [Your gut microbiome and white blood cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/your-gut-microbiome-and-white-blood-cells/) - 09 December 2022 In a recent study, researchers have investigated the role of intestinal bacteria composition in enhancing the recovery of the neutrophil population in the blood of mice following chemotherapy and/or stem cell transplant...
- [Leukemia linked T cells may drive autoimmune diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/leukemia-linked-t-cells-may-drive-autoimmune-diseases/) - 07 December 2022 In a new study, researchers have shown that leukemia patients were at risk of developing autoimmune disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis or aplastic anemiam showing that immune cells, killer T cells, may be key role player...
- [Predicting patient responses to COVID-19 immunotherapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/predicting-patient-responses-to-covid-19-immunotherapies/) - 06 December 2022 According to data from a phase 2 trial, researchers have discovered inflammatory markers that may help identify COVID-19 patients who are more likely to react to treatments like the anti-cancer medicine pacritinib...
- [I’ve been coughing for so long](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/hypersensitivity/ive-been-coughing-for-so-long/) - Her asthma symptoms are triggered by exposure to identified allergens to which she is sensitized. Therefore, Jade has asthma with type 2 allergic inflammation. Despite optimal observance, Jade’s condition remains poorly controlled and she experiences exacerbations of dyspnea.
- [A case of persistent bloody diarrhoea](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/clinical-cases/gastrointestinal-disorders/a-case-of-persistent-bloody-diarrhoea/) - Case study of persistent bloody diarrhoea - investigation, diagnosis and treatment of Ulcerative Colitis plus discussion of the immunology of the disease.
- [Thomas Murooka](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/thomas-murooka/) - November 2022 I obtained my Bachelor’s degree at the University of British Columbia (UBC) in Microbiology & Immunology. My first experience with research was when I entered the co-op program there and worked at two biotech companies...
- [Neurological effects of COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/neurological-effects-of-covid-1933528-2/) - 28 November 2022 In a new study, researchers have described the effects of COVID-19 on the neurological system and the subsequent development of 'neuro-COVID'.
- [HIV and its mechanisms of drug evasion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/hiv-and-its-mechanisms-of-drug-evasion/) - 24 November 2022 In a recent paper, researchers offer fresh understandings into the perplexing mechanism that not only renders HIV extremely elusive but may also be involved in other viral diseases...
- [Axon regeneration in the adult nervous system – immune modulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/axon-regeneration-in-the-adult-nervous-system-immune-modulation/) - 23 November 2022 In a recent paper, researchers used a murine model to simplify a few of the difficulties involved in the regeneration of damaged axons, shedding new light on the quest for therapeutic approaches for difficult illnesses like spinal cord injuries...
- [Atypical B cells as biomarkers of renal complication in lupus patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/atypical-b-cells-as-biomarkers-of-renal-complication-in-lupus-patients/) - 21 November 2022 In a recent study, researchers investigated the role of abnormal B cell activation and differentiation to memory or plasma effector cells in the pathogenesis of Lupus nephritis (LN)...
- [Improved cancer treatment response in those with COVID vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/improved-cancer-treatment-response-in-those-with-covid-vaccination/) - 17 November 2022 In an interesting finding, researchers found that when patients received the Chinese vaccine SinoVac instead of being unvaccinated, the cancer medications performed better...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/grant-writing/) - All students will be involved in the grant writing exercise during the Immuno-Zambia course. This is usually the favourite part of the course and you will be working very hard. This exercise will help prepare you for an essential and frequent activity of your life as a scientist. Participants will be divided into 8 groups
- [Tumor associated macrophages: the future targets for anti-melanoma immunotherapy ?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/tumor-associated-macrophages-the-future-targets-for-anti-melanoma-immunotherapy/) - 14 November 2022 In a review by Rebecca Adams et al., researchers described the involvement of tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) in failure of CI therapy and potential strategies to target those cells thereby improving CI efficacy...
- [Novel insights – regulating skin inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-insights-regulating-skin-inflammation/) - 11 November 2022 Researchers looked at mechanisms in the skin that might lessen damage from UV radiation or infections, which can also produce uncomfortable symptoms like sunburn, in a new report that looked at inflammatory reactions in the skin...
- [Vimentin and its role in COVID-19 infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vimentin-and-its-role-in-covid-19-infection/) - 07 November 2022 According to a new study, the cell-surface protein vimentin serves as a co-receptor for the infection-promoting entrance of SARS-CoV-2 into host cells...
- [How the brain slows us down when we are sick](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-the-brain-slows-us-down-when-we-are-sick/) - 04 November 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have described a cluster of neurons slow the activity of mice in order to prioritise fighting bacterial infections...
- [Improving vaccine immunity against fungal pneumonia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/improving-vaccine-immunity-against-fungal-pneumonia/) - 02 November 2022 Using a murine model, researchers have identified and described a type of T cell, that promotes the production of certain cytokines that play a key role in immunity against fungal pathogens...
- [IUIS – Immunopaedia – Frontiers Webinars 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/webinars/iuis-immunopaedia-frontiers-webinars-2022/) - For its third series, IUIS, in partnership with immunopaedia and Frontiers in Immunology, will broaden the scope to cover a variety of hot topics in immunological research such as Autoimmunity, Infectious Diseases and Allergology. Immunopaedia Summaries: Microbiome control of host immunity Dr. Yasmine Belkaid is a distinguished Investigator at the National Institute of Allergy and
- [Immuno-Cuba 2022 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cuba-2022/immuno-cuba-2022-introduction/) - Abstract writing, poster and oral presentation skills Course Held at the ALACI22 -13th Latin American and Caribbean Congress of Immunology Varadero, Cuba An interactive course aimed at learning abstract writing strategies, improving the skills of poster presentations and gaining experience of short oral presentations. Participants were divided into groups (balanced for gender and education level)
- [Poster and Abstract Examples](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-cuba-2022/poster-and-abstract-examples/) - Group 2 Example Abstract Background: Cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA) released to maternal circulation by cytotrophoblasts (CTBs) may have a critical participation in the pro-inflammatory environment established during parturition. It is proposed that cffDNA acts as a damage associated molecular pattern (DAMP) leading to the activation of inflammatory pathways. In humans, the mechanisms that trigger
- [Time of day for COVID-19 vaccination does not matter](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/time-of-day-for-covid-19-vaccination-does-not-matter/) - 31 October 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have found that immunisation with the Moderna COVID-19 mRNA vaccine at different times of the day has no effect on the efficacy of the vaccine...
- [Lectures - Panel and Posters](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/lectures-panel-and-posters/) - Discussion Panel - The Future of Immunology Education in 2030 Discussion Panel - The Future of Immunology Education in 2030 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 1 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 1 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 2 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 2 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 3 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 3 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 4 Immuno-Argentina Poster Session 4 Immuno-Argentina Poster
- [Lectures - Vaccine development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/lectures-vaccine-development/) - Vaccine for Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS) - Marina Palermo Vaccine for Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS) - Marina Palermo Nanovaccine and immunological memory - Belkys Maletto Nanovaccine and immunological memory - Belkys Maletto Topic discussion: Vaccine development - Coordinated by Drs Palermo and Maletto Topic discussion: Vaccine development - Coordinated by Drs Palermo and Maletto Tracking
- [Lectures - Humoral Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/lectures-humoral-immunity/) - B cell responses - Adriana Gruppi B cell responses - Adriana Gruppi Human B cell memory - Dr Ralf Kuppers Human B cell memory - Dr Ralf Kuppers Topic discussions - Drs Gruppi and Kuppers Topic discussions - Drs Gruppi and Kuppers
- [Lectures - Cellular Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/lectures-cellular-immunity/) - Metabolic checkpoints and T cell fate - Dr Tim Sparwasser Metabolic checkpoints and T cell fate - Dr Tim Sparwasser Tissue resident CD4+ T cells - Dr Carolina Amezcua Tissue resident CD4+ T cells - Dr Carolina Amezcua Tissue resident CD4+ T cells - Dr Carolina Amezcua Tissue resident CD4+ T cells - Dr
- [Lectures - Innate Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/lectures-innate-immunity/) - Metabolism of dendritic cells - Luciana Berod Metabolism of dendritic cells - Luciana Berod Innate Immunity in viral infections - Elina Zuniga Innate Immunity in viral infections - Elina Zuniga Innate Immunity Topic discussions Drs Zúñiga and Berod Innate Immunity Topic discussions Drs Zúñiga and Berod How to write a Successful Grant
- [Non-invasive tumour immune cell monitoring](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/non-invasive-tumour-immune-cell-monitoring/) - 28 October 2022 In a recent study, researchers have developed a new technique that is safer and non-invasive in order to track within brain and breast tumors in living mice...
- [Infection in the brain - defenses and consequences](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/infection-in-the-brain-defenses-and-consequences/) - 26 October 2022 In a new study, researchers have described and created a detailed map of the immune system in the brain and how reacts to infection. They showed how the brain is initially protected by brain-resident macrophages...
- [Martyna Scibiorek](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/martyna-scibiorek/) - October 2022Martyna is a founder of Science Bridge, a company specializing in creating opportunities for biotechnology-related students across the country. She is also a founder of the BuildUP Science Career Accelerator, which is a 2-year program providing support, guidance, education and mentorship for...
- [Basic Immunology of HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/basic-immunology-of-hiv/) - The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), classified as a retrovirus, belongs to the genus Lentivirus within the family of Retroviridae. It is the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It invades various immune cells such as the CD4+ T cells and monocytes. A decline in CD4+ T cell numbers below the critical level leads to loss of cell-mediated immunity. Consequently, the body
- [Equity, Diversity and Inclusion in Academia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/equity-diversity-and-inclusion-in-academia/) - Equity, Diversity and Inclusion is everyone’s responsibility Objectives of the Module To share status of women and minorities in Science (Immunology) To identify opportunities to increase Equity and Diversity in Africa’s Immunology Societies To foster a sense of belonging and inclusion in respective laboratory environments Definitions Diversity: involves all the ways that people
- [Immunity to Helminths](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-zambia-2022/immunity-to-helminths/) - Type 2 and regulatory immune responses in helminth infections Over one third of the human population is affected by one or multiple helminth parasites. Helminth parasites are complex multicellular, eukaryotic pathogens with different life stages, which can affect a variety of different human tissues. Helminths induce an entirely distinct immune response compared to other microbial
- [What determines COVID-19 disease persistence and severity?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-determines-covid-19-disease-persistence-and-severity/) - 24 October 2022 Recently, researchers have described the patterns of immune system disruptions which can lead to long-term or severe COVID-19. They were able to predict that consistent reduction of dendritic cells increasing their chance of developing long COVID...
- [Novel treatment approach for asthma without negative immune system effects](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-treatment-approach-for-asthma-without-negative-immune-system-effects/) - 20 October 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have described how inhibiting or blocking calcium signals in immune cells can lead to a reduction in common asthma symptoms without effecting the immune response to flu viruses...
- [Development and use of cellular behavioural landscapes to describe inflammatory states](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/development-and-use-of-cellular-behavioural-landscapes-to-describe-inflammatory-states/) - 17 October 2022 In a recent paper, Crainiciuc and colleagues made use of 4D imaging technology to visualise several hundreds of cells in an attempt to characterize each leukocyte at the site of inflammation...
- [The interplay between LRRC15+ myofibroblasts and anti-tumour immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-interplay-between-lrrc15-myofibroblasts-and-anti-tumour-immunity/) - 14 October 2022 In a recent paper, researchers were able to show that the development of LRRC15+ myofibroblasts during the process of tumorigenesis is supported by TGFβ signalling in dermatopontin positive (DPT+) universal fibroblasts...
- [1. A Snapshot of the Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/a-snapshot-of-the-immune-system/) - The host, via its immune system, has the capacity to recognize materials as foreign to itself and to neutralize, eliminate, or metabolize them with or without injury to its own tissue(s). Some of these foreign materials can be referred to as antigens and could be entire micro-organisms like bacteria, fragments of them or substances produced
- [The opportunity to boost antiretroviral therapy interventions through maternal vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-opportunity-to-boost-antiretroviral-therapy-interventions-through-maternal-vaccination/) - 12 October 2022 In a recent paper, researchers proposed the concept of maternal vaccination to help boost the effectiveness of ART to reduce mother-to-child transmission of HIV...
- [Rebound to COVID-19 – not from impaired immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/rebound-to-coivd-19-not-from-impaired-immunity/) - 10 October 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have found that rebounding to COVID-19 is not likely to be caused by an inefficient or impaired immune response, Looking at 8 patients who have taken nirmatrelvir/ritonavir...
- [The humoral response as a marker in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-humoral-response-as-a-marker-in-patients-with-chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease/) - 07 October 2022 In a new study, researchers aimed to determine the markers of inflammation within different categories of patients with COPD, that is, those with rapid, slow or no lung functional decline...
- [How to boost immunotherapies against B-cell leukemia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/how-to-boost-immunotherapies-against-b-cell-leukemia/) - 05 October 2022 In a new study, Witkowski, et al., have identified novel regulators by using a surface CD19-guided whole-genome CRISPR-Cas9 screening platform to ensure the complete elimination of malignant cells by certain immunotherapies...
- [SARS-CoV-2 can infect adipose tissue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sars-cov-2-can-infect-adipose-tissue/) - 03 October 2022 A recent study had researchers show that SARS-CoV-2 is capable of infecting human fat tissue. In this study they looked at fat tissue biopsied from patients undergoing bariatric and cardiac surgeries...
- [Lack of sleep and your immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/lack-of-sleep-and-your-immune-system/) - 29 September 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have described how a consistent lack of sleep can have significant negative effects on your immune system, with harmful affects observed in immune cells, leading to inflammatory disorders and cardiovascular disease...
- [Microbiome control of host immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/webinars/iuis-immunopaedia-frontiers-webinars-2022/microbiome-control-of-host-immunity/) - Webinar Catch UpIn her presentation, Dr. Belkaid spoke about the role of microbiota in tissue immunity and repair, highlighting early how the microbiota control the development and function of the immune system.
- [What effect does anti PD-1 therapy have on responses to the influenza vaccine?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-effect-does-anti-pd-1-therapy-have-on-responses-to-the-influenza-vaccine/) - 28 September 2022 In a new study, researchers sought to find what effect anti-PD-1 immunotherapies have on the Tfh–B cell axis. To study this, they had a look at the immune responses induced by the influenza vaccine...
- [Melissa Murphy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/melissa-murphy/) - September 2022Melissa Murphy grew up in Cape Town, South Africa. She attended the University of Cape (UCT) Town and graduated with a BSc in Biochemistry and Microbiology and a BSc Honours in Molecular and Cell Biology. Melissa worked for a scientific sales company as a Sales Administrator before returning to UCT...
- [Vaccine-associated enhanced respiratory disease in hamsters vaccinated against COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/vaccine-associated-enhanced-respiratory-disease-in-hamsters-vaccinated-against-covid-19/) - 26 September 2022 In this study, Ebenig and colleagues were able to come up with a detailed description of what they believe to be the immune-cell mediated mechanisms responsible for inducing Vaccine-associated enhanced respiratory disease (VAERD)...
- [Increased activity of Neutrophil Elastase in sera of SLE patients during the COVID-19 pandemic](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/increased-activity-of-neutrophil-elastase-in-sera-of-sle-patients-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/) - 23 September 2022 In a new study, Knopf and colleagues now assessed the serological changes in the serum of patients with SLE with regards to NET formation in samples taken before and during the pandemic...
- [Inhibiting Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/inhibiting-mycobacterium-tuberculosis-infection/) - 21 September 2022 In a new study, researchers investigated the role of HIFs in the regulation of CD4 T cell responses during infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis...
- [SARS-CoV-2 infection following vaccination – more robust immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sars-cov-2-infection-following-vaccination-more-robust-immunity/) - 19 September 2022 In a new study, researchers have looked at the primary site of SARS-CoV-2 infection and done T-cell analysis of nasal swab samples to assess immunity following vaccination and infection...
- [Novel protein linked to rheumatoid arthritis pathogenesis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-protein-linked-to-rheumatoid-arthritis-pathogenesis/) - 16 September 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have discovered and described a protein known as sulfatase-2 that may be a key role player in the pathology of rheumatoid arthritis (RA)...
- [10. Central and Peripheral Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/central-and-peripheral-tolerance/) - Introduction Erlich put forward the term ‘horror autotoxicus’ to refer to the body’s aversion to immunological self-destruction, and postulated that mechanisms must prevent reaction against self Healthy individuals have a smouldering autoimmune response that can escape control (a system of many checks and balances) to cause autoimmune disorders A major area of interest is how
- [6. Thymic T Cell Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/thymic-t-cell-development/) - Background Tolerance is induced and maintained both centrally and peripherally, each with a non-redundant function in maintaining receptor diversity while curtailing self-reactivity It was observed more than 50 years ago that non-identical twin calves sharing a placenta do not react to each other’s erythrocytes, and it was hypothesised that in utero exposure rendered them tolerant
- [9. Antibody Structure and Classes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/antibody-structure-and-classes/) - History of Immunoglobulin Molecules Take a look at our Timeline - History of Immunoglobulin Molecules Immunoglobulin Structure The immunoglobulins are a family of glycoproteins. Each immunoglobulin has four polypeptide chains; two small chains (molecular weight of 22 kD) termed light chains (LCs) (Figure 1) and two more chains (55 kD) called heavy chains (HCs), connected
- [Using viruses to fight cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-viruses-to-fight-cancer/) - 14 September 2022 In a new study, Ningbo, et al., has described a novel way of combining two treatments which may be effective in treating treatment-resistant cancers...
- [Antibodies from cows may provide protection from Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/antibodies-from-cows-may-provide-protection-from-mycobacterium-avium-subsp-paratuberculosis/) - 12 September 2022 In a recent paper, it is hypothesised that the invasion of MAP at the portal entry in the presence of specific antibodies can affect the course of infection...
- [SAIS/Immunopaedia Webinars 2022](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/webinars/sais-immunopaedia-webinars-2022/) - The South African Immunology Society (SAIS) in collaboration with Immunopaedia.org.za present An African Based Immunology Series in 2022. Join us for a new monthly webinar series. We will reach out to from all over Africa or African Scientists based elsewhere in the world to hear about their research and experiences. From March 30 every last
- [A ‘side-ways’ mechanism of detection in CD1a and γδ T cell receptor interactions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-side-ways-mechanism-of-detection-in-cd1a-and-γδ-t-cell-receptor-interactions/) - 07 September 2022 In a new study, Wegrecki and colleagues sought to find out whether γδ T cells can recognise the human CD1a protein...
- [Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/grant-writing/)
- [Neutrophils as biomarkers for COVID-19 and recovery](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/neutrophils-as-biomarkers-for-covid-19-and-recovery/) - 05 August 2022 In a new study, researchers have successfully mapped and described the proteome of neutrophils isolated from peripheral blood of COVID-19 patients...
- [What does HIV infection have to do with T follicular regulatory cells (TFRs)?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-does-hiv-infection-have-to-do-with-t-follicular-regulatory-cells-tfrs/) - 02 September 2022 In a new study, researchers decided to take a deep dive into TFRs using lymph nodes (LNs) and blood samples of HIV treated and untreated alongside healthy controls to determine the functions and key regulators of TFRs...
- [What role do CD137L and CD4 T-cells have in B-cell lymphoma immuno-surveillance?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-role-do-cd137l-and-cd4-t-cells-have-in-b-cell-lymphoma-immuno-surveillance/) - 31 August 2022 In a new study, researchers sought to find out what role CD4 T-cells play when it comes to aiding the tumour-suppressing function of CD8 T-cells, and possibly unpack the exact mechanisms that can account for the immunosurveillance observed from CD4 T-cells...
- [Blocking of an important coronavirus enzyme with natural compounds](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/blocking-of-an-important-coronavirus-enzyme-with-natural-compounds/) - 29 August 2022 In a new study, researchers have screened a large library of natural substances using X-ray and found that they bound to an enzyme which is essential for replication of the coronavirus...
- [Shaping of anti-tumor immunity in the tumor microenvironment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/webinars/iuis-immunopaedia-frontiers-webinars-2022/shaping-of-anti-tumor-immunity-in-the-tumor-microenvironment/) - Professor Wolf H. Fridman is a Professor of Immunology at the Paris Descartes University Medical School in Paris, France. He received his MD and PhD degrees from the University of Paris. After 10 years in the laboratory headed by Jean Dausset, he created his own laboratory at the Cancer Research Centre in Villejuif in 1976, then
- [Metabolic control of T cell differentiation during immune responses to cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/webinars/iuis-immunopaedia-frontiers-webinars-2022/metabolic-control-of-t-cell-differentiation-during-immune-responses-to-cancer/) - The Delgoffe Lab studies the metabolic contributions to T cell fate and function. The activation, expansion, and differentiation of T cells requires the interpretation of many complex signals including those from the antigen receptor, costimulatory and coinhibitory molecules, and cytokines. It has now become clear that metabolism represents another key mechanism by which T cells
- [Helminths and Vaccine responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/helminths-and-vaccine-responses/) - 26 August 2022 In a recent systematic review, researchers systematically reviewed existing literature on the effects of helminth infections and their treatment on vaccine responses in humans and animals...
- [A map of the immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-map-of-the-immune-system/) - 24 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have successfully created the first comprehensive map of the human immune system, illustrating all connections in full and describing the communication between immune cells and how we can use this as a tool to investigate disease and develop new therapeutics...
- [CD8 T-cell mediated vaccine protection against SARS-CoV-2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cd8-t-cell-mediated-vaccine-protection-against-sars-cov-2/) - 22 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers described the effects and role of CD8+ T-cell responses following vaccination with Ad26.COV2.S (Janssen/Johnson & Johnson) in the response against SARS-CoV-2 infection utilising a rhesus macaques model...
- [The emergence of inflammatory monocytes as the leukemia anteroom.](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-emergency-of-inflammatory-monocytes-as-the-leukemia-anteroom/) - 17 August 2022 In a recent paper,researchers have developed a novel mouse model carrying a TET2 missense mutation which develop a broad spectrum of myeloid cancers late in life in order to map the transition from indolent hematopoiesis to pathological states...
- [Distinct antibody responses as biomarkers to monitor cancer immunotherapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/distinct-antibody-responses-as-biomarkers-to-monitor-cancer-immunotherapies/) - 12 August 2022 In a new study, researchers described how pre-existing and treatment-induced antibodies against specific antigen targets could reflect the response elicited by anti-tumour drugs and that this response could be predictive of cancer immunogenicity and therefore...
- [New insights into the interferon response to SARS-CoV-2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/new-insights-into-the-interferon-response-to-sars-cov-2/) - 15 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have investigated several SARS-CoV-2 variants to describe how the innate immune system responds to infection. They specifically looked at the interferon response to SARS-CoV-2 infection.
- [Promising new insights: the immune response following a stroke](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/promising-new-insights-the-immune-response-following-a-stroke/) - 10 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have found that CD8+ regulatory-like T cells release neuroprotective molecules in the brain following a stroke, which may limit inflammation and subsequent brain damage...
- [Using bacteria to fight cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-bacteria-to-fight-cancer/) - 08 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers sought to deepen our understanding of the role of macrophages and inflammasome activation in the context of an attenuated Salmonella (LVR01) therapy against melanoma...
- [IL-25 blockade as a therapeutic strategy for asthma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/il-25-blockade-as-a-therapeutic-strategy-for-asthma/) - 08 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers hypothesised the role of IL-25 in directly regulating bronchial epithelial cells (BEC) innate immunity during viral infection and that inhibition of IL-25 would lead to increased IFN expression and reduced viral load...
- [Unique genes: the innate immune response and tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/unique-genes-the-innate-immune-response-and-tuberculosis/) - 03 August 2022 In a recent paper, Khan, et al., hypothesized that the MΦ phenotype can enhance anti-TB function following cytokine stimulation, and this stimulation can explain the development of LTBI...
- [SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in hamsters is not as deadly as we think](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sars-cov-2-omicron-variant-in-hamsters-is-not-as-deadly-as-we-think/) - 02 August 2022 In a recent paper, researchers investigated the respiratory tract and described the pathogenicity of Omicron variant in comparison to other variants of concern...
- [SDS-PAGE](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/sds-page/) -  These resources have been created through a collaborative project between Cardiff and Swansea Universities part funded by a St David’s Medical Foundation grant awarded to Dr Nigel Francis and Dr Tom Wilkinson to allow Dave Ruckley to develop the simulations.
- [Lateral Flow](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/lateral-flow/) - These resources have been created through a collaborative project between Cardiff and Swansea Universities part funded by a St David’s Medical Foundation grant awarded to Dr Nigel Francis and Dr Tom Wilkinson to allow Dave Ruckley to develop the simulations.
- [Flow Cytometry Part 3](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/flow-cytometry-part-3/) - These resources have been created through a collaborative project between Cardiff and Swansea Universities part funded by a St David’s Medical Foundation grant awarded to Dr Nigel Francis and Dr Tom Wilkinson to allow Dave Ruckley to develop the simulations.
- [ELISA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/elisa/) - These resources have been created through a collaborative project between Cardiff and Swansea Universities part funded by a St David’s Medical Foundation grant awarded to Dr Nigel Francis and Dr Tom Wilkinson to allow Dave Ruckley to develop the simulations.
- [Flow Cytometry Part 2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/flow-cytometry-part-2/) - These resources have been created through a collaborative project between Cardiff and Swansea Universities part funded by a St David’s Medical Foundation grant awarded to Dr Nigel Francis and Dr Tom Wilkinson to allow Dave Ruckley to develop the simulations.
- [Flow Cytometry Part 1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/flow-cytometry-part-1/) - These resources have been created through a collaborative project between Cardiff and Swansea Universities part funded by a St David’s Medical Foundation grant awarded to Dr Nigel Francis and Dr Tom Wilkinson to allow Dave Ruckley to develop the simulations.
- [Nasal spray immunisation: potential use against HIV and SARS-CoV-2 shown in an animal models](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/nasal-spray-immunisation-potential-use-against-hiv-and-sars-cov-2-shown-in-an-animal-models/) - 29 July 2022 In a recent paper by Hartwell, et al., the researchers tested whether albumin-binding amph-vaccines would enable and enhance FcRn-mediated vaccine uptake within the nasal mucosa...
- [Cancer, collagen the microbiome and immunity – a link!](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cancer-collagen-the-microbiome-and-immunity-a-link/) - 27 July 2022 In a recent study, researchers have described how cancer cells can produce small amounts of collagen that form a unique matrix which effects the tumour microbiome, protecting it from the immune response...
- [COVID-19 and the brain - new insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/covid-19-and-the-brain-new-insights/) - 26 July 2022 In a recent paper, researchers found that certain antibodies mark cells, mistakenly, lining the brain's blood vessels for attack which leads to an inflammatory responses and tissue damage, following SARS-CoV-2 infection and subsequent COVID-19 disease...
- [T cells and Beyond](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/t-cells-and-beyond/) - T cells and Beyond: from tissue residency, metabolism and novel ways to detect them. In this section, we will explore aspects of T cells that are more in-depth and additional to the account of T cells, which can be found here: Overview of T cell Subsets Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) Here, we focus
- [Can reprogramming CD8 T-cells contribute to a cure for a HIV?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/can-reprogramming-cd8-t-cells-contribute-to-a-cure-for-a-hiv/) - 22 July 2022 In a recent paper, researchers investigated the reprogramming of CD8+ T-cells from non-controllers and tested if it could lead to a boost in their antiviral immune response, as a result of their CD8+ T-cells exhibiting characteristics seen in natural controllers...
- [An inflammatory pathway linked to autoimmune diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/an-inflammatory-pathway-linked-to-autoimmune-diseases/) - 21 July 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have identified and described a biochemical pathway that is essential for the production, transport, and action of oxidised mtDNA which may trigger inflammation in the body...
- [Strategies for Vaccine Design](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/strategies-for-vaccine-design/) - Nano formulations of the vaccine components One of the great triumphs of medicine has been the ability to harness these mechanisms through vaccination to protect against a host of infectious diseases. Vaccines have traditionally been aimed at generating responses against infectious agents, but increasingly they are also being explored in areas such as malignancy. Passively
- [Innate Immunity in Viral Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/innate-immunity-in-viral-infections/) - Introduction to viral Infections Viruses are infectious agents that only replicate inside of living cells. The viral replication cycle follows a typical pattern: Attachment and entry: The virus attaches to the host cell membrane via specific receptors and enters the host cell, delivering its genetic material into the cell. Replication and Assembly: The virus uses the host
- [Natural Killer Cell Memory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/natural-killer-cell-memory/) - Natural Killer (NK) Cells NK cells are one of the members of the innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) family. NK cells share characteristics with both, innate and adaptive immune cells such as a rapid responsiveness (innate), cytotoxic potential and memory (adaptive). They are also considered as a nexus or bridge between the innate and adaptive immune
- [Dendritic Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/dendritic-cells/) - Metabolism of Dendritic Cells Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) of the immune system and constitute a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity. DCs comprise a highly heterogeneous cell population able to receive and interpret signals either from invading pathogens or dying cells, and to respond to them through the
- [Gamma-Delta T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/gamma-delta-t-cells/) - Unconventional T cells T lymphocytes are characterized by the expression of the CD3 molecule and the associated T cell receptor for antigen (TCR). This is the hallmark of all T cells in contrast to other CD3-negative lymphoid cells which may share some effector functions with T cells, such as NK cells or innate lymphocytes (IlCs). Most
- [Michael Betts](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/michael-betts/) - July 2022Our Immunologist of the Month for July 2022 is Professor Michael Betts. Read our interview where he talks about his travels, career, lab and provides advice for young immunologists. Prof Betts research the immune response...
- [B cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/b-cells/) - Activation of B cells There are two main immune responses that can drive the activation of resting B-cells, and these are termed as T-cell dependent and independent immune responses. Resting B cells become activated by antigen via the BCR and/or via their toll like receptors (TLR4, 7, 9 in mice) and start to proliferate. Protein
- [Trained Innate Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/trained-innate-immunity/) - The definition of memory used in the context of trained host defense is different from that of classic adaptive immunological memory. In contrast, the memory of trained immunity is defined as a heightened response to a secondary infection that can be exerted both toward the same microorganism and a different one (cross-protection). The term ‘‘trained
- [Developing new tools to combat COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/developing-new-tools-to-combat-covid-19/) - 19 July 2022 Hans-Martin, et al., reported the isolation of monoclonal antibodies from TRIANNI mice, which can be used to provide a pair of non-competing human monoclonal antibodies for clinical development...
- [SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant hardly evade neutralization by S309](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sars-cov-2-omicron-variant-hardly-evade-neutralization-by-s309/) - 18 July 2022 In a recent study, researchers described the X-ray crystal structure of a complex of the Omicron RBD with broadly neutralizing sarbecovirus mAb S309...
- [Interactive Technique Courses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/treatment-diagnostics/interactive-technique-courses/)
- [11th IDA 2022 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/11th-ida-2022/11th-ida-2022-introduction/) - [table id=260 /]
- [Immuno-Argentina 2022 Introduction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/iuis-courses/immuno-argentina-2022/immuno-argentina-2022-introduction/) - [table id=259 /]
- [Hair growth and our immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/hair-growth-and-our-immune-system/) - 13 July 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have identified a potential target for treatment of alopecia, a autoimmune disorder whereby the immune system attacks the hair follicles resulting in hair loss...
- [SARS-CoV-2 – a weakness?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/sars-cov-2-a-weakness/) - 11 July 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have identified and described an epitope capable of neutralising a variety of coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-1, WIV1 and SHC014...
- [The immune system and obesity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/the-immune-system-and-obesity/) - 08 July 2022 In a recent paper by Schmidt, et al., researchers have investigated the immunoregulatory effects of type 2 T helper (Th2) cells in an environment characterised by significantly high fat stores and malnutrition...
- [Adaptations of tissue-resident memory T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/adaptations-of-tissue-resident-memory-t-cells/) - 07 July 2022 In a recent paper by Crowl, et al., researchers provide novel insights into CD8+ tissue-resident memory T cells, describing how these cells adapt when present within specific environments, differing from one another...
- [Using lipid nanoparticles for cancer treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/using-lipid-nanoparticles-for-cancer-treatment/) - 06 July 2022 In a recent paper, Zhang, et al, have developed nanoparticles that can break down the barriers around tumours, reaching cancerous cells, providing a potentially improved and effective treatment for cancers...
- [A vaccine with a dual threat to cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-vaccine-with-a-dual-threat-to-cancer/) - 01 July 2022 In a recent paper, Badrinath and colleagues report of a vaccine designed to target one tumour immune escape mechanism...
- [Can BCG vaccination reduce mortality and morbidity from COVID-19?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/can-bcg-vaccination-reduce-mortality-and-morbidity-from-covid-19/) - 27 June 2022 In a recent paper, researchers looked at the affects of BCG vaccination of COVID-19 mortality and morbidity...
- [5. Overview of T Cell Subsets](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/overview-of-t-cell-subsets/) - Introduction The T cell repertoire in a healthy adult is shaped by thymic selection (positive and negative), where naive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells can then interact, and be primed, with “foreign” antigen in the secondary lymphoid tissues Antigen engagement via the T cell receptor (TCR) then shapes the repertoire of antigen-specific T cells and most likely the functional attributes of the T
- [A potential new vaccine for rabies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/a-potential-new-vaccine-for-rabies/) - 24 June 2022 In a recent paper, Callaway, et al., identified and described a potential new and improved rabies vaccine design. A groundbreaking effort by researchers...
- [Does cancer immunoediting occur in humans?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/does-cancer-immunoediting-occur-in-humans/) - 23 June 2022 In a recent paper, researchers investigated whether humans are capable of undergoing natural cancer immunoediting during the course of cancer progression...
- [What happens to your cilia during SARS-CoV-2 infection?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/what-happens-to-your-cilia-during-sars-cov-2-infection/) - 21 June 2022 In a recent paper, Fonseca, et al., sought out to describe the interaction between ORF10 and ZYG11B and determine whether it promotes the spread of SARS-CoV-2...
- [Abdallah Badou](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/abdallah-badou/) - June 2022Our Immunologist of the Month for June 2022 is esteemed Professor Abdallah Badou. Watch the video interviews below where he talks about his career, lab and answers questions about cancers and provides advice for young immunologists.
- [T cell lineage fate is driven by CD4 and CD8 co-receptor gene loci](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cell-lineage-fate-is-driven-by-cd4-and-cd8-co-receptor-gene-loci/) - 17 June 2022 Shinzawa and colleagues aimed to identify whether the fate of thymocyte lineage is determined by coreceptor gene loci that regulate TCR signal duration, or by coreceptor proteins, which determine TCR signal strength.
- [Novel insights: immunotherapy responses in lung cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/novel-insights-immunotherapy-responses-in-lung-cancer/) - 16 June 2022 In a recent paper, de Miguel-Perez, et al., have described, validated and tested a blood test that, for the first time, can be used as a liquid biopsy to predict a patient’s response to cancer immunotherapy and whether it will be successful or not...
- [Comparing four COVID-19 vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/comparing-four-covid-19-vaccines/) - 13 June 2022 In a new study, researchers have investigated the level of induction of immunity from four different types of COVID-19 vaccines. They looked at how T-cells, B-cells, antibody levels change over six months following vaccination...
- [Does the timing of granuloma formation affect TB control?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/does-the-timing-of-granuloma-formation-affect-tb-control/) - 09 June 2022 In a recent paper, Gideon and colleagues demonstrate to us how diverse TB granulomas can be, not just between individuals, but within an individual...
- [Adaptive Immunity and Immune Memory to SARS-CoV-2 after COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/webinars/iuis-immunopaedia-frontiers-webinars-2022/adaptive-immunity-and-immune-memory-to-sars-cov-2-after-covid-19/) - The third webinar of the IUIS-Immunopaedia-Frontiers series featured Professor Shane Crotty titled, “Adaptive Immunity and Immune Memory to SARS-CoV-2 after COVID-19.”
- [ATLAS – describing SARS-CoV-2 variant T-cell responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/atlas-describing-sars-cov-2-variant-t-cell-responses/) - 07 June 2022 In a recent paper, Foti, et al., aimed to characterise the T-cell antigen response in response to SARS-CoV-2 variants using the ATLAS screening assay...
- [T cell and Ab-mediated autoimmune diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/t-cell-and-ab-mediated-autoimmune-diseases/) - T cell mediated autoimmune diseases Introduction Patients with T cell defects can present with a variety of organ specific autoimmune diseases (e.g., type 1 diabetes mellitus in infancy, hypothyroidism, and Addison's disease) caused by the attack on these organs by the patient's own immune cells. The basis for these clinical complications is unclear, but are
- [Human M1 macrophages champion the control of TB disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/human-m1-macrophages-champion-the-control-of-tb-disease/) - 01 June 2022 In a recent paper, researchers have investigated the role of M1 macrophages in combating TB infection...
- [Cannabidiol - a potential tool for fighting SARS-CoV-2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/cannabidiol-a-potential-tool-for-fighting-sars-cov-2/) - 30 May 2022 In a new study, Fernandes, et al., aimed to determine the function of ORF8 and ORF10 genes and SARS-CoV-2 Membrane (M) protein and there effect on apoptosis...
- [Improving Chagas disease diagnosis and treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/improving-chagas-disease-diagnosis-and-treatment/) - 27 May 2022 Researchers from Sweden have described the variant formation of Trypanosoma cruzi which are capable of evading the immune system and causing disease...
- [7. gamma/delta T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/gamma-delta-t-cells/) - Unconventional T cells Introduction T lymphocytes are characterized by the expression of the CD3 molecule and the associated T cell receptor for antigen (TCR). This is the hallmark of all T cells in contrast to other CD3-negative lymphoid cells which may share some effector functions with T cells, such as NK cells or innate lymphocytes
- [8. B Cell Activation and Plasma Cell Differentiation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/b-cell-activation-and-plasma-cell-differentiation/) - Activation of B cells There are two main immune responses that can drive the activation of resting B-cells, and these are termed as T-cell dependent and independent immune responses. Resting B cells become activated by antigen via the BCR and/or by microbiological side products (pathogen associated molecular patterns; PAMPs) via their toll like receptors (TLR4,
- [Bifonazole - a potential treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/bifonazole-a-potential-treatment-for-sars-cov-2-infection/) - 25 May 2022 In a recent paper by Taha, et al., the researchers identified the imidazole-based antifungal, Bifonazole, and characterised its activity against SARS-CoV-2 using high-throughput screening techniques...
- [Catherine Kegakilwe Koofhethile](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/interviews/immunologist-of-the-month-2022/catherine-kegakilwe-koofhethile/) - May 2022Dr Catherine Kegakilwe Koofhethile is currently in the final stages of her Postdoctoral/Fogarty Fellowship at Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA. She also holds a Research Associate position at the Botswana Harvard AIDS...
- [Immunodiagnostic of onchocerciasis: do we have the right tool to end the game?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/immunodiagnostic-of-onchocerciasis-do-we-have-the-right-tool-to-end-the-game/) - 23 May 2022 In a recent study, a team from the Centre for Research on Filariasis and other Tropical Diseases (CRFilMT) collected samples of individuals living in a highly endemic focus in Central Cameroon where more than 20 years Ivermectin has been administered...
- [Flow Cytometry](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/flow-cytometry/) - Principles of Flow Cytometry Flow cytometry has become one of the most important tools in immunology research. The basic principle of this technique is the fluorometric analysis of samples on a single cell level. In the following section detailed information on flow cytometry will be provided including: Principles of Fluorescence Fluorochromes (definition, functions, different types)
- [Biomarkers](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/biomarkers/) - Definitions and History Biological markers or ‘biomarkers’ may be simply defined as quantifiable biological changes reliably indicating a particular biological state. These changes are then used as a proxy representing this state, whether physiological or pathological. In the broadest sense, biomarkers encompass even traditional clinical signs (such as oedema), but more recently the term has
- [Immunology of COVID-19 Vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/immunology-of-covid-19-vaccines/) - SARS-CoV-2 origin and transmission Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) first identified in December 2019, is the etiological agent of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 has zoonotic origin, and shares genomic similarity with other zoonotic viruses responsible for SARS (SARS-CoV-1) and MERS (EMC/2012 coronavirus) Genomic analysis SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated that the virus has a receptor
- [Transplantation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/transplantation/) - Introduction In a clinical setting, the term transplantation generally refers to the transfer or replacement of cells, tissues, or organs from one individual to another. The source of the transplant can either be a person’s own body, another human, or another species. In the human, with the exception of transplantation of one’s own tissues, where
- [Epigenetics & Modulation of Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/epigenetics-modulation-of-immunity/) - Introduction Epigenetic mechanisms have been shown to regulate many genes including those involved in inflammation and the immune response Epigenetic mechanisms include DNA methylation, DNA hydroxymethylation, post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histone proteins, nucleosome remodeling and regulation by non-coding RNAs These different mechanisms work in concert with cis and trans acting elements to drive gene expression
- [Regulation of Immunity & the Microbiome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/regulation-of-immunity-the-microbiome/) - Introduction The human gut is colonized by microbiota early in life. It is now recognized that bacteria in the gut have many beneficial function and play a key role in immune system development and protection against pathogens. At birth, the infant gut is sterile, and becomes colonized with bacteria during delivery. Thereafter, the microbial content
- [Central & Peripheral Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/central-peripheral-tolerance/) - Introduction Erlich put forward the term ‘horror autotoxicus’ to refer to the body’s aversion to immunological self destruction, and postulated that mechanisms must prevent reaction against self Healthy individuals have a smouldering autoimmune response that can escape control (a system of many checks and balances) to cause autoimmune disorders A major area of interest is
- [Mucosal Immunity & Immunopathology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/mucosal-immunity-immunopathology/) - Reactivity vs. Tolerance It is incompletely understood how mucosal immunity differentiates between pathogens and commensals or harmless environmental antigens Tolerance induction is mostly at play at these surfaces, as we know that APC present antigens to lymphocytes, which activate and proliferate under the influence of micro-environmental cytokines This involves activated T-cells interacting with cognate B-cells
- [Immune Regulation in Pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/other-courses/sun-honours/immune-regulation-in-pregnancy/) - Introduction The maternal-foetal interface of the placenta is a complex microenvironment containing soluble and cellular regulatory factors necessary for the establishment and maintenance of a normal pregnancy. Regulation of these factors is precisely localized, and changes as the pregnancy progresses. The placenta is both an immune-privileged site and the conduit through which the foetus receives
- [Stopping inflammation in its tracks](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/stopping-inflammation-in-its-tracks/) - 18 May 2022 In this recent paper, researchers were able to show the direction and degree of which the NLRP3 structure/filament expands during inflammation using cryo-electron microscopy...
- [Regulation of Immunity & the Microbiome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/previous-iuis-courses/iuis-iis-fimsa-immuno-jaipur/regulation-of-immunity-the-microbiome/) - Introduction The human gut is colonised by microbiota early in life. It is now recognised that bacteria in the gut have many beneficial function and play a key role in immune system development and protection against pathogens. At birth, the infant gut is sterile, and becomes colonised with bacteria during delivery. Thereafter, the microbial content
- [T cells and melanomas -  a potential predictive tool](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/t-cells-and-melanomas-a-potential-predictive-tool/) - 17 May 2022 In a recent paper, Jaiswal, et al., researchers analysed several human tumour samples as well as T cell populations and tumour types in order to model T cell behaviour during cancer...
- [COVID-19 mortality and genetic predisposition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/covid-19-mortality-and-genetic-predisposition/) - 16 May 2022 In a new paper by Anderson, et al., the researchers established a detailed model which links COVID-19 mortality and age...
- [3. The Innate Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/online-courses/core-immunology-modules/the-innate-immune-system/) - Mononuclear Phagocytes Produce Key Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines Mononuclear phagocytes (monocytes and macrophages) are essential for the development of inflammation and together with neutrophils are the phagocytic cells involved in the clearance of inert particles and microbial agents. Monocytes are bone marrow-derived cells and are continuously released into the blood. When these cells are recruited

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- [TB immunity through the TCR lens -M Musvosvi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tb-immunity-through-the-tcr-lens-m-musvosvi/)
- [Measuring immune responses against TB - K Jambo](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/measuring-immune-responses-against-tb-k-jambo/)
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- [Gabriel Nunez - Host-Microbiota Interactions  in Health and Disease - Part 2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gabriel-nunez-host-microbiota-interactions-in-health-and-disease/)
- [Gabriel Nunez - Host-Microbiota Interactions  in Health and Disease - Part 1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gabriel-nunez-host-microbiota-interactions-in-health-and-disease-part-1/)
- [Immuno-Chile 2023 Grant Writing – Group 5](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-chile-2023-grant-writing-group-5/)
- [Yanet Valdez -Unconscious biases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/yanet-valdez-unconscious-biases/)
- [Gloria Vasquez - Translational medicine IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gloria-vasquez-translational-medicine-ibd/)
- [Immunity to Intestinal Viral Infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunity-to-intestinal-viral-infections/)
- [Katharina Lahl -Intestinal mucosal Dendritic Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/katharina-lahl-intestinal-mucosal-dendritic-cells/)
- [Glauben Landskron -TME - Inflammation and fibroblasts affect colon cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/glauben-landskron-tme-inflammation-and-fibroblasts-affect-colon-cancer/)
- [Renata Curciarello - Fibrosis & IBD presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/renata-curciarello-fibrosis-ibd-presentation/)
- [Immuno-Chile 2023 Grant Writing - Group 7](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-chile-2023-grant-writing-group-7/)
- [Caroll Beltran - Gut-Brain axis & low-grade inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/caroll-beltran-gut-brain-axis-low-grade-inflammation/)
- [Riitta Lahesmaa - Epigenetic Regulation of Treg cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/riitta-lahesmaa-epigenetic-regulation-of-treg-cells/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-1/)
- [Dieter Kabelitz - Impact of Vitamin C on the Immune System and its Therapeutic Perspective](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dieter-kabelitz-impact-of-vitamin-c-on-the-immune-system-and-its-therapeutic-perspective/)
- [Immuno-Chile 2023 Grant Writing - Group 3](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-chile-2023-grant-writing-group-3/)
- [Guillermo Docena - Intestinal inflammation in food allergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/guillermo-docena-intestinal-inflammation-in-food-allergy/)
- [EDI statement guide](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/edi-statement-guide-2/)
- [Immuno-Chile 2023 Grant Writing - Group 4](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-chile-2023-grant-writing-group-4/)
- [Immuno-Chile 2023 Grant Writing - Group 1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-chile-2023-grant-writing-group-1/)
- [Thanasis Ziogas - Trained Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/thanasis-ziogas-ziogas_immunoindia_2023/)
- [Martin Vaeth - Regulators of Immunometabolism and Epigenetics in Lymphocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/martin-vaeth-vaeth_immunoindia_2023/)
- [Satyajeet Khare - Machine learning for functional genomics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/satyajeet-khare-khare_immunoindia-2023/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 5](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-5/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-2/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 6](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-6/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 8](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-8/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 7](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-7/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 4](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-4/)
- [Immuno-India 2023- Grant Writing Group 3](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-india-2023-grant-writing-group-3/)
- [EDI statement guide](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/edi-statement-guide/)
- [IUIS-ALACI-SMI-ASOCHIN Immuno-Chile 2023 Groups](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/iuis-alaci-smi-asochin-immuno-chile-2023-groups/)
- [IUIS-FIMSA-IIS_Immuno-India Grant Writing UPDATED 200923](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/iuis-fimsa-iis_immuno-india-grant-writing-updated-200923/)
- [IUIS-FIMSA-IIS_Immuno-India Grant writing UPDATED](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/iuis-fimsa-iis_immuno-india-grant-writing-updated/)
- [Application Form - Immuno-Mexico 2024](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/application-form-immuno-mexico-2024/)
- [IUIS-ALACI-SMI-ASOCHIN Immuno-Chile 2023](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/iuis-alaci-smi-asochin-immuno-chile-2023/)
- [Molecular Basis of Intestinal Fibrosis in IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/molecular-basis-of-intestinal-fibrosis-in-ibd/)
- [Immunological Regulation of Intestinal Fibrosis in IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunological-regulation-of-intestinal-fibrosis-in-ibd/)
- [Development of Antifibrotic therapy for stricturing Crohns disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/development-of-antifibrotic-therapy-for-stricturing-crohns-disease/)
- [Revisiting fibrosis in inflammatory bowel disease-the gut thickens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/revisiting-fibrosis-in-inflammatory-bowel-disease-the-gut-thickens/)
- [The spatial transcriptomic landscape of the healing mouse intestine following damage](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-spatial-transcriptomic-landscape-of-the-healing-mouse-intestine-following-damage/)
- [Method of the Year- spatially resolved transcriptomics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/method-of-the-year-spatially-resolved-transcriptomics/)
- [Local and systemic mechanisms linking periodontal disease and inflammatory comorbidities](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/local-and-systemic-mechanisms-linking-periodontal-disease-and-inflammatory-comorbidities/)
- [Unravelling the pathogenesis IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/unravelling-the-pathogenesis-ibd/)
- [The paradox of autoimmunity and autoinflammation in inherited neutrophil disorders](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-paradox-of-autoimmunity-and-autoinflammation-in-inherited-neutrophil-disorders/)
- [From genetics of inflammatory bowel disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/from-genetics-of-inflammatory-bowel-disease/)
- [The fibrotic and immune microenvironments as targetable drivers of metastasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-fibrotic-and-immune-microenvironments-as-targetable-drivers-of-metastasis/)
- [Can Stroma Reaction Predict Cancer Lethality](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/can-stroma-reaction-predict-cancer-lethality/)
- [Cancer-associated fibroblasts in desmoplastic tumors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cancer-associated-fibroblasts-in-desmoplastic-tumors/)
- [Picture a Scientist](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/picture-a-scientist/)
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- [The women of FOCIS](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-women-of-focis/)
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- [Mechanisms of mucosal healing -treating inflammatory bowel disease without immunosuppression](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mechanisms-of-mucosal-healing-treating-inflammatory-bowel-disease-without-immunosuppression/)
- [IL-22BP is regulated by the inflammasome and modulates tumorigenesis in the intestine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/il-22bp-is-regulated-by-the-inflammasome-and-modulates-tumorigenesis-in-the-intestine/)
- [B cell expansion hinders the stroma-epithelium regenerative cross talk during mucosal healing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/b-cell-expansion-hinders-the-stroma-epithelium-regenerative-cross-talk-during-mucosal-healing/)
- [Dendritic Cells Revisited](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dendritic-cells-revisited/)
- [DC functions in the inductive and effector sites of intestinal immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dc-functions-in-the-inductive-and-effector-sites-of-intestinal-immunity/)
- [Dendritic Cell Regulation of T Helper Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dendritic-cell-regulation-of-t-helper-cells/)
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- [HIV, Cancer, and the Microbiota- Common Pathways Influencing Different Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-cancer-and-the-microbiota-common-pathways-influencing-different-diseases/)
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- [IUIS-FIMSA-IIS Immuno-India 2023 Grant Writing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/iuis-fimsa-iis-immuno-india-2023-grant-writing/)
- [Cholesterol and mitochondrial bioenergetics in activation of the inflammasome in IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cholesterol-and-mitochondrial-bioenergetics-in-activation-of-the-inflammasome-in-ibd/)
- [The microbiome and inflammatory bowel disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-microbiome-and-inflammatory-bowel-disease/)
- [SCFAs-Mediated Gut Epithelial and Immune Regulation and Its Relevance for IBD](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/scfas-mediated-gut-epithelial-and-immune-regulation-and-its-relevance-for-ibd/)
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- [Mechanisms by which gut microorganisms influence food sensitivities](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mechanisms-by-which-gut-microorganisms-influence-food-sensitivities/)
- [Food allergy-Epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/food-allergy-epidemiology-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-treatment/)
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- [Intestinal Mucosal Mast Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/intestinal-mucosal-mast-cells/)
- [The Stressed Gut](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-stressed-gut/)
- [T-cell based immunotherapies for Parkinsons disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-based-immunotherapies-for-parkinsons-disease/)
- [Mediator of the Gut-Brain Axis Involved in Parkinson’s Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mediator-of-the-gut-brain-axis-involved-in-parkinsons-disease/)
- [Obesity-induced hyperglycemia impairs oral tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/obesity-induced-hyperglycemia-impairs-oral-tolerance/)
- [Oral tolerance as antigen-specific immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/oral-tolerance-as-antigen-specific-immunotherapy-2/)
- [Immune responses that adapt the intestinal mucosa to commensal intestinal bacteria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-responses-that-adapt-the-intestinal-mucosa-to-commensal-intestinal-bacteria-2/)
- [Host–microbiota interactions in inflammatory bowel disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/host-microbiota-interactions-in-inflammatory-bowel-disease-2/)
- [Host–microbiota interactions in immune-mediated diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/host-microbiota-interactions-in-immune-mediated-diseases-2/)
- [Host immune cells and gut microbiota in chronic inflammatory diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/host-immune-cells-and-gut-microbiota-in-chronic-inflammatory-diseases/)
- [BCG Vaccination in Humans Elicits Trained Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/bcg-vaccination-in-humans-elicits-trained-immunity/)
- [Pirfenidone Inhibits Production of Primary Human Intestinal Fibroblasts](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/pirfenidone-inhibits-production-of-primary-human-intestinal-fibroblasts/)
- [Interleukin-34 Stimulates Gut Fibroblasts to Produce Collagen Synthesis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/interleukin-34-stimulates-gut-fibroblasts-to-produce-collagen-synthesis/)
- [Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Intestinal Fibrosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cellular-and-molecular-mechanisms-of-intestinal-fibrosis/)
- [Oral tolerance as antigen-specific immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/oral-tolerance-as-antigen-specific-immunotherapy/)
- [Obesity-induced hyperglycemia impairs oral tolerance induction and aggravates food allergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/obesity-induced-hyperglycemia-impairs-oral-tolerance-induction-and-aggravates-food-allergy/)
- [Immune responses that adapt the intestinal mucosa to commensal intestinal bacteria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-responses-that-adapt-the-intestinal-mucosa-to-commensal-intestinal-bacteria/)
- [The Intermucosal Connection between the Mouth and Gut](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-intermucosal-connection-between-the-mouth-and-gut/)
- [Human gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-gut-associated-lymphoid-tissues-galt/)
- [Microbial uptake in oral mucosa–draining lymph nodes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/microbial-uptake-in-oral-mucosa-draining-lymph-nodes/)
- [Two distinct interstitial macrophage populations coexist across tissues](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/two-distinct-interstitial-macrophage-populations-coexist-across-tissues/)
- [Tissue-specific macrophages -how they develop and choreograph tissue biology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tissue-specific-macrophages-how-they-develop-and-choreograph-tissue-biology/)
- [Immunological Effects of Epigenetic Modifiers](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunological-effects-of-epigenetic-modifiers/)
- [Epigenetic modifiers synergize with immune-checkpoint blockade](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetic-modifiers-synergize-with-immune-checkpoint-blockade/)
- [Entinostat induces antitumor immune responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/entinostat-induces-antitumor-immune-responses/)
- [Regulatory T cells in tumor microenvironment-new mechanisms](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulatory-t-cells-in-tumor-microenvironment-new-mechanisms/)
- [Regulation of T cell differentiation and function by epigenetic modification enzymes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulation-of-t-cell-differentiation-and-function-by-epigenetic-modification-enzymes/)
- [A guide to immunometabolism for immunologists](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-guide-to-immunometabolism-for-immunologists-2/)
- [Mitochondrial TCA cycle metabolites control physiology and disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mitochondrial-tca-cycle-metabolites-control-physiology-and-disease/)
- [Metabolism and epigenetics at the heart of T cell function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/metabolism-and-epigenetics-at-the-heart-of-t-cell-function-2/)
- [Targeting Epigenetic Modifiers of Tumor Plasticity and Cancer Stem Cell Behavior](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/targeting-epigenetic-modifiers-of-tumor-plasticity-and-cancer-stem-cell-behavior/)
- [Epigenetic regulation in human cancer: the potential role of epi-drug in cancer therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetic-regulation-in-human-cancer-the-potential-role-of-epi-drug-in-cancer-therapy/)
- [TET family dioxygenases and the TET activator vit C in immune responses and cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tet-family-dioxygenases-and-the-tet-activator-vit-c-in-immune-responses-and-cancer/)
- [Vitamin C From Supplement to Treatment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/vitamin-c-from-supplement-to-treatment/)
- [Vit C effects on alpha-beta versus gamma-delta T-cell activation and differentiation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/vit-c-effects-on-alpha-beta-versus-gamma-delta-t-cell-activation-and-differentiation/)
- [A saga of cancer epigenetics- linking epigenetics to alternative splicing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-saga-of-cancer-epigenetics-linking-epigenetics-to-alternative-splicing/)
- [Epigenetics and Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetics-and-alternative-pre-mrna-splicing/)
- [Regulation of Alternative Splicing Through Coupling with Transcription and Chromatin Structure](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulation-of-alternative-splicing-through-coupling-with-transcription-and-chromatin-structure/)
- [What can clinical immunology learn from inborn errors of epigenetic regulators?](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/what-can-clinical-immunology-learn-from-inborn-errors-of-epigenetic-regulators-2/)
- [Histone chaperone networks shaping chromatin function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/histone-chaperone-networks-shaping-chromatin-function/)
- [Epigenetics as “conductor” in “orchestra” of pluripotent states](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetics-as-conductor-in-orchestra-of-pluripotent-states/)
- [Histone Chaperones as Cardinal Players in Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/histone-chaperones-as-cardinal-players-in-development/)
- [Stimulus-specific responses in innate immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/stimulus-specific-responses-in-innate-immunity/)
- [Role of the NF-KB system in contect-specific tuning of the inflammatory gene response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/role-of-the-nf-kb-system-in-contect-specific-tuning-of-the-inflammatory-gene-response/)
- [Clinical value of DNA methylation markers in autoimmune rheumatic diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/clinical-value-of-dna-methylation-markers-in-autoimmune-rheumatic-diseases/)
- [Epigenetic implication in coronavirus infection and therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetic-implication-in-coronavirus-infection-and-therapy/)
- [Epigenetic modification of monocytes in BCG vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetic-modification-of-monocytes-in-bcg-vaccination/)
- [The epigenetic implication in coronavirus infection and therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-epigenetic-implication-in-coronavirus-infection-and-therapy/)
- [Postinfectious Epigenetic Immune Modifications -A Double-Edged Sword](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/postinfectious-epigenetic-immune-modifications-a-double-edged-sword/)
- [Defining trained immunity and its role in health and disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/defining-trained-immunity-and-its-role-in-health-and-disease/)
- [Trained immunity and host-pathogen interactions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/trained-immunity-and-host-pathogen-interactions/)
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- [A primer on deep learning in genomics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-primer-on-deep-learning-in-genomics-2/)
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- [Epigenetic regulation of the innate immune response to infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetic-regulation-of-the-innate-immune-response-to-infection/)
- [Epigenetic regulation in B-cell maturation and its dysregulation in autoimmunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetic-regulation-in-b-cell-maturation-and-its-dysregulation-in-autoimmunity/)
- [Epigenetics of B Cells and antibody responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epigenetics-of-b-cells-and-antibody-responses/)
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- [Transcriptional and epigenetic basis of Treg cell development and function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/transcriptional-and-epigenetic-basis-of-treg-cell-development-and-function/)
- [Trained Immunity-related vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/trained-immunity-related-vaccines/)
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- [Analysis of normal and leukemic stem cells - Thomas Matthes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/analysis-of-normal-and-leukemic-stem-cells-thomas-matthes/)
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- [TME and Leukemia Stem Cells - Monica Guzman](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tme-and-leukemia-stem-cells-monica-guzman/)
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- [Impact of pre-adapted HIV transmission](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/impact-of-pre-adapted-hiv-transmission/)
- [Transmission of HIV-1 Gag immune escape mutations is associated with reduced viral load in linked recipients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/transmission-of-hiv-1-gag-immune-escape-mutations-is-associated-with-reduced-viral-load-in-linked-recipients/)
- [Immune correlates of protection by mRNA-1273 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in nonhuman primates](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-correlates-of-protection-by-mrna-1273-vaccine-against-sars-cov-2-in-nonhuman-primates/)
- [Immune correlates analysis of the mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine efficacy clinical trial](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-correlates-analysis-of-the-mrna-1273-covid-19-vaccine-efficacy-clinical-trial/)
- [Immune Correlates Analysis of a Single Ad26.COV2.S Dose in the ENSEMBLE COVID-19](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-correlates-analysis-of-a-single-ad26-cov2-s-dose-in-the-ensemble-covid-19/)
- [Multi-omic Analysis Approach Measures Protein Expression and Low-Abundance on the Single-Cell Level](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/multi-omic-analysis-approach-measures-protein-expression-and-low-abundance-on-the-single-cell-level/)
- [Prevention of M. tuberculosis Infection with H4IC31 Vaccine or BCG Revaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/prevention-of-m-tuberculosis-infection-with-h4ic31-vaccine-or-bcg-revaccination/)
- [Simultaneous epitope and transcriptome measurement in single cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/simultaneous-epitope-and-transcriptome-measurement-in-single-cells-2/)
- [Immunological laboratory methods for patients follow up - Klaus Pantel](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunological-laboratory-methods-for-patients-follow-up-klaus-pantel/)
- [Cancer Vaccines - Olivera Finn](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cancer-vaccines-olivera-finn/)
- [Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells - Augusto Ochoa](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/myeloid-derived-suppressor-cells-augusto-ochoa/)
- [Tumor Infiltrating Lymphocytes (TIL) therapy - Soraya Zorro](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tumor-infiltrating-lymphocytes-til-therapy-soraya-zorro/)
- [Anti Cytokine Therapy - Gloria Vasquez](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/anti-cytokine-therapy-gloria-vasquez/)
- [CAR-T, armored CARs and CAR-NK therapies - Sonia Gueden](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/car-t-armored-cars-and-car-nk-therapies-sonia-gueden/)
- [Perspectives of human gamma-delta T-cells - Dieter Kabelitz](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/perspectives-of-human-gamma-delta-t-cells-dieter-kabelitz/)
- [Checkpoint Blockade-based Therapies - Elizabeth Quackenbush](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/checkpoint-blockade-based-therapies-elizabeth-quackenbush/)
- [An introductory overview of immunotherapy - Carla Rothlin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/an-introductory-overview-of-immunotherapy-carla-rothlin/)
- [Carl Goodyear - B cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/carl-goodyear-b-cells/)
- [The impact of structural bioinformatics tools and resources on SARS-CoV-2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-impact-of-structural-bioinformatics-tools-and-resources-on-sars-cov-2/)
- [Role of intelligent computing in COVID-19 prognosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/role-of-intelligent-computing-in-covid-19-prognosis/)
- [Current and prospective computational approaches and challenges for developing COVID-19 vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/current-and-prospective-computational-approaches-and-challenges-for-developing-covid-19-vaccines/)
- [Dysregulated Type I Interferon and Inflammatory Monocyte-Macrophage- SARS-CoV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dysregulated-type-i-interferon-and-inflammatory-monocyte-macrophage-sars-cov/)
- [An inflammatory cytokine signature predicts COVID-19 severity and survival](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/an-inflammatory-cytokine-signature-predicts-covid-19-severity-and-survival/)
- [The first 12 months of COVID-19- a timeline of immunological insights](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-first-12-months-of-covid-19-a-timeline-of-immunological-insights/)
- [Vaccines for immunoprevention of cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/vaccines-for-immunoprevention-of-cancer/)
- [Targeting resident memory T cells for cancer IT](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/targeting-resident-memory-t-cells-for-cancer-it/)
- [Antibodies elicited by non viral prophylactic cancer vaccine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/antibodies-elicited-by-non-viral-prophylactic-cancer-vaccine/)
- [Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Human Glioma Microenvironment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-checkpoint-inhibitors-in-human-glioma-microenvironment/)
- [Promising IgSF11 Immune Checkpoint Is Highly Expressed in Advanced Human Gliomas](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/promising-igsf11-immune-checkpoint-is-highly-expressed-in-advanced-human-gliomas/)
- [Prognostic Gene Expression Signature in Patients With Distinct Glioma Grades](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/prognostic-gene-expression-signature-in-patients-with-distinct-glioma-grades/)
- [Loomba R Hepatitis B reactivation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/loomba-r-hepatitis-b-reactivation/)
- [Ehrles Tb reactivation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ehrles-tb-reactivation/)
- [Almanzar varicela zoster and tofacitinb](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/almanzar-varicela-zoster-and-tofacitinb/)
- [Translocation of a gut pathobiont drives autoimmunity in mice and humans](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/translocation-of-a-gut-pathobiont-drives-autoimmunity-in-mice-and-humans/)
- [Host–microbiota interactions in immune-mediated diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/host-microbiota-interactions-in-immune-mediated-diseases/)
- [Ectopic colonization of oral bacteria in the intestine drives TH1 cell induction and inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ectopic-colonization-of-oral-bacteria-in-the-intestine-drives-th1-cell-induction-and-inflammation/)
- [COVID-19 and ACE2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/covid-19-and-ace2/)
- [Coxsakievirus and Diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/coxsakievirus-and-diabetes/)
- [Viruses and Lupus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/viruses-and-lupus/)
- [Cellular and Molecular Defects Underlying invasive Fungal infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cellular-and-molecular-defects-underlying-invasive-fungal-infections/)
- [Genetic susceptibility to fungal infection in children](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genetic-susceptibility-to-fungal-infection-in-children/)
- [Human inborn errors of immunity underlying superficial or invasive candidiasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-inborn-errors-of-immunity-underlying-superficial-or-invasive-candidiasis/)
- [Anti–IFN-y autoantibodies underlie disseminated Talaromyces marneffei infections](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/anti-ifn-y-autoantibodies-underlie-disseminated-talaromyces-marneffei-infections/)
- [Distinct Functions of Autoantibodies Against Interferon in SLE](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/distinct-functions-of-autoantibodies-against-interferon-in-sle/)
- [Neutralizing type-I interferon autoantibodies associated with delayed viral clearance and icu admission in COVID-19 patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/neutralizing-type-i-interferon-autoantibodies-associated-with-delayed-viral-clearance-and-icu-admission-in-covid-19-patients/)
- [Anti-Immunology-Evasion of the Host Immune System by Bacterial and Viral Pathogens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/anti-immunology-evasion-of-the-host-immune-system-by-bacterial-and-viral-pathogens/)
- [Intracellular Pathogens- Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/intracellular-pathogens-host-immunity-and-microbial-persistence-strategies/)
- [T Cell Immunity to Bacterial Pathogens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-immunity-to-bacterial-pathogens/)
- [The microbiome and cytosolic innate immune receptors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-microbiome-and-cytosolic-innate-immune-receptors/)
- [Host–microbiota interactions in inflammatory bowel disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/host-microbiota-interactions-in-inflammatory-bowel-disease/)
- [cGAS-STING pathway-Role of self-DNA sensing in inflammatory lung disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cgas-sting-pathway-role-of-self-dna-sensing-in-inflammatory-lung-disease/)
- [Thumbi Ndung'u - HIV Vaccines](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/thumbi-ndungu-hiv-vaccines/)
- [Hannah Scales -Imaging](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hannah-scales-imaging/)
- [Nelson V Simwela - Career](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/nelson-v-simwela-career/)
- [George Githinji - SARS-CoV-2 Genome Kenya](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/george-githinji-sars-cov-2-genome-kenya/)
- [Paul Garside - Understanding breach of tolerance in autoimmunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/paul-garside-understanding-breach-of-tolerance-in-autoimmunity/)
- [Carl Goodyear - Arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/carl-goodyear-arthritis/)
- [Andy Waters - Malaria Drug resistance APW](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/andy-waters-malaria-drug-resistance-apw/)
- [Zaza Ndhlovu -Viral immunology, with HIV as an example](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/zaza-ndhlovu-viral-immunology-with-hiv-as-an-example/)
- [Rick Maizels - Biology of Helminths](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/rick-maizels-biology-of-helminths/)
- [Richard McCulloch - Antigenic variation RMcC](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/richard-mcculloch-antigenic-variation-rmcc/)
- [Christopher Moxon - Cerebal Malaria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/christopher-moxon-cerebal-malaria/)
- [Robin Stephens -T cell Activation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/robin-stephens-t-cell-activation/)
- [Kevin Maloy - Immunology Overview](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/kevin-maloy-immunology-overview/)
- [James Brewer - Innate Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/james-brewer-innate-immunity/)
- [SARS-CoV-2 variants-Subversion of antibody repsonse and predicted impact on T cell recognition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/sars-cov-2-variants-subversion-of-antibody-repsonse-and-predicted-impact-on-t-cell-recognition/)
- [Prior infection with SARS-CoV-2 boosts and broadens Ad26.COV2.S immungenicity in a variant dependent manner](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/prior-infection-with-sars-cov-2-boosts-and-broadens-ad26-cov2-s-immungenicity-in-a-variant-dependent-manner-2/)
- [Loss of recognition of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.351 variant spike epitopes but overall preservation of T cell immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/loss-of-recognition-of-sars-cov-2-b-1-351-variant-spike-epitopes-but-overall-preservation-of-t-cell-immunity/)
- [Prior infection with SARS-CoV-2 boosts and broadens Ad26.COV2.S immungenicity in a variant dependent manner](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/prior-infection-with-sars-cov-2-boosts-and-broadens-ad26-cov2-s-immungenicity-in-a-variant-dependent-manner/)
- [Cross-Reactive Neutralizing Antibody Responses Elicited by SARS-CoV-2 501Y.V2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cross-reactive-neutralizing-antibody-responses-elicited-by-sars-cov-2-501y-v2/)
- [Immune correlates of protection by mRNA-1273 immunization against SARS-CoV-2 infection of Non-human primates](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-correlates-of-protection-by-mrna-1273-immunization-against-sars-cov-2-infection-of-non-human-primates/)
- [Immune Correlates Analysis of the mRNA-1273 COVID-19 Vaccine Efficacy Trial](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-correlates-analysis-of-the-mrna-1273-covid-19-vaccine-efficacy-trial/)
- [Correlates of protection against symptomatic and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/correlates-of-protection-against-symptomatic-and-asymptomatic-sars-cov-2-infection/)
- [Structural basis for inhibition of Plasmodium vivax invasion by brodly neutralizing vaccine-induced human antibody](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/structural-basis-for-inhibition-of-plasmodium-vivax-invasion-by-brodly-neutralizing-vaccine-induced-human-antibody/)
- [Reduced blood-stage malaria growth and immune correlates  in human following RH5 vaccine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/reduced-blood-stage-malaria-growth-and-immune-correlates-in-human-following-rh5-vaccine/)
- [Malaria Vaccines- Recent Advances and New Horizons](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-vaccines-recent-advances-and-new-horizons-3/)
- [Immunometabolism at the interface between macrophages and pathogens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunometabolism-at-the-interface-between-macrophages-and-pathogens/)
- [Heterogeneity in tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/heterogeneity-in-tuberculosis/)
- [Prevention of TB in macaques after intravenous BCG immunization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/prevention-of-tb-in-macaques-after-intravenous-bcg-immunization/)
- [Simultaneous epitope and transcriptome measurement in single cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/simultaneous-epitope-and-transcriptome-measurement-in-single-cells/)
- [Prevention of M.tb Infection with H4-IC31 Vaccine or BCG Revaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/prevention-of-m-tb-infection-with-h4-ic31-vaccine-or-bcg-revaccination/)
- [Tuberculosis Vaccine Development- Progress in Clinical Evaluation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tuberculosis-vaccine-development-progress-in-clinical-evaluation/)
- [Moving tuberculosis vaccines from theory to practice](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/moving-tuberculosis-vaccines-from-theory-to-practice/)
- [Targeting Fc effector function in vaccine design.pdf](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/targeting-fc-effector-function-in-vaccine-design-pdf/)
- [HIV infected individuals and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-infected-individuals-and-sars-cov-2-vaccination/)
- [Innate immune signatures to a partially-efficacious HIV vaccine predict correlates of HIV-1 infection risk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/innate-immune-signatures-to-a-partially-efficacious-hiv-vaccine-predict-correlates-of-hiv-1-infection-risk/)
- [Immune correlates of vaccine protection against HIV-1 acquisition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-correlates-of-vaccine-protection-against-hiv-1-acquisition/)
- [Emerging concepts in the science of vaccine adjuvants](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/emerging-concepts-in-the-science-of-vaccine-adjuvants/)
- [A tale of four studies-HIV vaccine immunogenicity and efficacy in clinical trials](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-tale-of-four-studies-hiv-vaccine-immunogenicity-and-efficacy-in-clinical-trials/)
- [Immuno-Colombia 2021 Report](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immuno-colombia-2021-report/)
- [Type I hypersensitivity Against Aeroallergens - Omalizumab](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/type-i-hypersensitivity-against-aeroallergens-omalizumab/)
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- [Oncology Meets Immunology- The Cancer-Immunity Cycle](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/oncology-meets-immunology-the-cancer-immunity-cycle-2/)
- [A review of cancer immunotherapy-from the past, to the present, to the future](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-review-of-cancer-immunotherapy-from-the-past-to-the-present-to-the-future/)
- [γδ T cells- pleiotropic immune effectors with therapeutic potential in cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/γδ-t-cells-pleiotropic-immune-effectors-with-therapeutic-potential-in-cancer/)
- [Cancer immunotherapy with γδ T cells- many paths ahead of us](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cancer-immunotherapy-with-γδ-t-cells-many-paths-ahead-of-us/)
- [Deciphering human γδ T cell response in cancer- Lessons from tumor-infiltrating γδ T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/deciphering-human-γδ-t-cell-response-in-cancer-lessons-from-tumor-infiltrating-γδ-t-cells/)
- [Translating gammadelta T cells and their receptors into cancer cell therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/translating-gammadelta-t-cells-and-their-receptors-into-cancer-cell-therapies/)
- [30 Years of Biotherapeutics Development-What Have We Learned](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/30-years-of-biotherapeutics-development-what-have-we-learned/)
- [Revisiting IL-2- Biology and therapeutic prospects](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/revisiting-il-2-biology-and-therapeutic-prospects/)
- [Selected cytokine pathways in rheumatoid arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/selected-cytokine-pathways-in-rheumatoid-arthritis/)
- [Soluble ligands as drug targets](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/soluble-ligands-as-drug-targets/)
- [The Human Vaccines Project- A roadmap for cancer vaccine development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-human-vaccines-project-a-roadmap-for-cancer-vaccine-development/)
- [The dawn of vaccines for cancer prevention](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-dawn-of-vaccines-for-cancer-prevention/)
- [Human Tumor Antigens Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-tumor-antigens-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow/)
- [Engineering and Design of Chimeric Antigen Receptors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/engineering-and-design-of-chimeric-antigen-receptors/)
- [Emerging Cellular Therapies for Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/emerging-cellular-therapies-for-cancer/)
- [CAR-T Cells Hit the Tumor Microenvironment - Strategies to Ovecome Tumor Escape](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/car-t-cells-hit-the-tumor-microenvironment-strategies-to-ovecome-tumor-escape/)
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- [Myeloid-derived suppressor cells coming of age](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/myeloid-derived-suppressor-cells-coming-of-age/)
- [MDSC - The most Important cell you have never heard of](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mdsc-the-most-important-cell-you-have-never-heard-of/)
- [Expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in patients with severe coronavirus disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/expansion-of-myeloid-derived-suppressor-cells-in-patients-with-severe-coronavirus-disease/)
- [Oncology Meets Immunology-The Cancer-Immunity Cycle](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/oncology-meets-immunology-the-cancer-immunity-cycle/)
- [Enhancement of Antitumor Immunity by CTLA-4 Blockade](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/enhancement-of-antitumor-immunity-by-ctla-4-blockade/)
- [Coley's toxins in perspective](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/coleys-toxins-in-perspective/)
- [Unravelling tumour heterogeneity by single-cell profiling of circulating tumour cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/unravelling-tumour-heterogeneity-by-single-cell-profiling-of-circulating-tumour-cells/)
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- [IUIS FAIS Immuno-Algeria 2020 Report](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/iuis-fais-immuno-algeria-2020-report/)
- [Adoptive cell transfer a clinical path to effective cancer immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/adoptive-cell-transfer-a-clinical-path-to-effective-cancer-immunotherapy/)
- [Adoptive cell transfer as personalized immunotherapy for human cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/adoptive-cell-transfer-as-personalized-immunotherapy-for-human-cancer/)
- [Adoptive transfer of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in melanoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/adoptive-transfer-of-tumor-infiltrating-lymphocytes-in-melanoma/)
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- [Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes for the treatment of metastatic cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tumor-infiltrating-lymphocytes-for-the-treatment-of-metastatic-cancer/)
- [Cytokine Release Syndrome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cytokine-release-syndrome/)
- [D. Collins Owuor - Introduction to Bioinformatics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/d-collins-owuor-introduction-to-bioinformatics/)
- [Priscilla Ngotho - Career talk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/priscilla-ngotho-career-talk/)
- [Helminths Immune Evasion - Rick Maizels](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/helminths-immune-evasion-rick-maizels/)
- [Immune evasion in the African trypanosome - Richard McCulloch](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-evasion-in-the-african-trypanosome-richard-mcculloch/)
- [Paul Garside - Understanding breach of tolerance in autoimmunity summary](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/paul-garside-understanding-breach-of-tolerance-in-autoimmunity-summary/)
- [Carl Goodyear - Pathways driving chronicity in human inflammatory arthritis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/carl-goodyear-pathways-driving-chronicity-in-human-inflammatory-arthritis/)
- [B Cells - Carl Goodyear](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/b-cells-carl-goodyear/)
- [Helminths - Rick Maizels](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/helminths-rick-maizels/)
- [HIV - Daniel Muema](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-daniel-muema/)
- [Mycobacterium - Henry Mwandumba](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mycobacterium-henry-mwandumba/)
- [T Cell Activation- Robin Stephens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-activation-robin-stephens/)
- [Innate Immunity - Kevin Maloy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/innate-immunity-kevin-maloy/)
- [Immunology Overview Summary - Paul Garside](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunology-overview-summary-paul-garside/)
- [Grant Writing Afribop 2020 Updated](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/grant-writing-afribop-2020-updated/)
- [Grant writing Afribop 2020](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/grant-writing-afribop-2020/)
- [Grant writing SPECIFIC AIMS tasks](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/grant-writing-specific-aims-tasks/)
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- [Dialogue between microbiota and immune system - Yasmine Belkaid](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dialogue-between-microbiota-and-immune-system-yasmine-belkaid/)
- [Joshua Labadah Student Presentation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/joshua-labadah-student-presentation/)
- [Drug Hypersensitivity in TB HIV endemic settings -Jonathan Peters](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/drug-hypersensitivity-in-tb-hiv-endemic-settings-jonathan-peters/)
- [Experimental strategies to evaluate the allergenic activity of IgE-binding molecules - Luis Caraballo](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/experimental-strategies-to-evaluate-the-allergenic-activity-of-ige-binding-molecules-luis-caraballo/)
- [Non-invasive biomarkers for allergy - Carsten Schmidt-Weber](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/non-invasive-biomarkers-for-allergy-carsten-schmidt-weber/)
- [Next-generation of allergen-specific immunotherapies molecular approaches - Rudolph Valenta](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/next-generation-of-allergen-specific-immunotherapies-molecular-approaches-rudolph-valenta/)
- [Tryptase and histamine in anaphylaxis and Mast Cell Activation Syndromes (MAST) - Joana Vitte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tryptase-and-histamine-in-anaphylaxis-and-mast-cell-activation-syndromes-mast-joana-vitte/)
- [IgE response. links between allergens and helminth infections - Luis Caraballo](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ige-response-links-between-allergens-and-helminth-infections-luis-caraballo/)
- [IgE - Ulrich Blank final](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ige-ulrich-blank-final/)
- [T cells in allergic asthma - Sabelo Hadebe](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cells-in-allergic-asthma-sabelo-hadebe/)
- [Cellular Components of the allergic response - Mehrnaz Mesdaghi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cellular-components-of-the-allergic-response-mehrnaz-mesdaghi/)
- [Introduction to allergy and molecular diagnosis - Ruldolph Valenta](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/introduction-to-allergy-and-molecular-diagnosis-ruldolph-valenta/)
- [Molecular targets on basophils and mast cells for therapy of allergies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/molecular-targets-on-basophils-and-mast-cells-for-therapy-of-allergies/)
- [IgE receptor as a pharmacological target](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ige-receptor-as-a-pharmacological-target/)
- [Approaches to target IgE in allergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/approaches-to-target-ige-in-allergy/)
- [Hyper‐IgE in the allergy clinic-when is it primary immunodeficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hyper‐ige-in-the-allergy-clinic-when-is-it-primary-immunodeficiency/)
- [Defective glycosylation leads to defective gp130-dependent STAT3 signaliing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/defective-glycosylation-leads-to-defective-gp130-dependent-stat3-signaliing/)
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- [Helminth infections drive heterogeneity in human type 2 and regulatory cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/helminth-infections-drive-heterogeneity-in-human-type-2-and-regulatory-cells/)
- [Ascaris lumbricoides Cystatin Prevents Development of Allergic airway](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ascaris-lumbricoides-cystatin-prevents-development-of-allergic-airway/)
- [Ascariasis as a model to study the helminth allergy relationships](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ascariasis-as-a-model-to-study-the-helminth-allergy-relationships/)
- [ILCs in allergic diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ilcs-in-allergic-diseases/)
- [ILC 10 years on](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ilc-10-years-on/)
- [Functions of tissue-resident eosinophils](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/functions-of-tissue-resident-eosinophils/)
- [Eosinophils- changing perspectives in health and disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/eosinophils-changing-perspectives-in-health-and-disease/)
- [Anti-Leishmania Vaccines- A.Aebischer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/anti-leishmania-vaccines-a-aebischer/)
- [Fungal Epidemiology- C.Hoving](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/fungal-epidemiology-c-hoving/)
- [Fungal Immunology- C.Hoving](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/fungal-immunology-c-hoving/)
- [Mathematical modelling of visceral leishmaniasis - L.Chapman](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mathematical-modelling-of-visceral-leishmaniasis-l-chapman/)
- [Genetics of Schistosomiasis -A.Dessein](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genetics-of-schistosomiasis-a-dessein/)
- [CVs & CoverLetters-I.Muller](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cvs-coverletters-i-muller/)
- [Genetics of Immunity to Fungal Infections- R.Barbouche](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genetics-of-immunity-to-fungal-infections-r-barbouche/)
- [Research in Germany and EU - H.M.Jack](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/research-in-germany-and-eu-h-m-jack/)
- [Tools to be successful in Graduate School and Beyond - M.Letarte ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tools-to-be-successful-in-graduate-school-and-beyond-m-letarte/)
- [Shistosome Population Genetics -J.Cotton](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/shistosome-population-genetics-j-cotton/)
- [Transmission of Malaria -F.Frischknecht](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/transmission-of-malaria-f-frischknecht/)
- [Malaria Population Genetics- J.Cotton](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-population-genetics-j-cotton/)
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- [Genetics of Leishmaniasis - A.Dessein](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genetics-of-leishmaniasis-a-dessein/)
- [Leishmania Population Genetics - J.Cotton](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/leishmania-population-genetics-j-cotton/)
- [Transmission dynamics of visceral Leishmaniasis-D.Sacks](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/transmission-dynamics-of-visceral-leishmaniasis-d-sacks/)
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- [NETs and cerebral malaria - M.Herrmann](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/nets-and-cerebral-malaria-m-herrmann/)
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- [Sand flies in transmission of Leishmaniasis - I.Kolarova](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/sand-flies-in-transmission-of-leishmaniasis-i-kolarova/)
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- [Human monoclonal antibody prevents malaria infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-monoclonal-antibody-prevents-malaria-infection-2/)
- [Regulatory cytokine function in the respiratory tract](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulatory-cytokine-function-in-the-respiratory-tract/)
- [Lung Homeostasis- Influence of Age, Microbes, and the Immune System 2017](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/lung-homeostasis-influence-of-age-microbes-and-the-immune-system-2017/)
- [Early local immune defences in the respiratory tract](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/early-local-immune-defences-in-the-respiratory-tract/)
- [Vaccination with ALVAC and AIDSVAX to Prevent HIV-1 Infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/vaccination-with-alvac-and-aidsvax-to-prevent-hiv-1-infection/)
- [HIV-1 vaccine in low-risk HIV-uninfected South African adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-1-vaccine-in-low-risk-hiv-uninfected-south-african-adults/)
- [Maternal Schistosomiasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/maternal-schistosomiasis/)
- [Maternal immune response to helminth infection during pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/maternal-immune-response-to-helminth-infection-during-pregnancy/)
- [Chronic schistosomiasis during pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/chronic-schistosomiasis-during-pregnancy/)
- [Pathological manifestations in lymphatic filariasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/pathological-manifestations-in-lymphatic-filariasis/)
- [Modulation of Host Immunity by Helminths](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/modulation-of-host-immunity-by-helminths/)
- [Helminth parasite potently induces regulatory T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/helminth-parasite-potently-induces-regulatory-t-cells/)
- [Wuchereria bancrofti infection on HIV incidence in SW Tanzania](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/wuchereria-bancrofti-infection-on-hiv-incidence-in-sw-tanzania/)
- [Regulation of the host immune system by helminths](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulation-of-the-host-immune-system-by-helminths/)
- [Parasitic helminths - imapct on type 1 and 2 diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/parasitic-helminths-imapct-on-type-1-and-2-diabetes/)
- [Th2 Immune Polarizing Effects of Antidiabetic Momordica charantia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/th2-immune-polarizing-effects-of-antidiabetic-momordica-charantia/)
- [Jujube modulates antioxidant activity and human T-cell proliferation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/jujube-modulates-antioxidant-activity-and-human-t-cell-proliferation/)
- [Anti-hyperglycemic effects of 3 medicinal plants in diabetic pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/anti-hyperglycemic-effects-of-3-medicinal-plants-in-diabetic-pregnancy/)
- [Antihyperglycemic Effect of Momordica charantia](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/antihyperglycemic-effect-of-momordica-charantia/)
- [Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity by TGFbeta](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulation-of-innate-and-adaptive-immunity-by-tgfbeta/)
- [Immunoregulation by members of TGFbeta superfamily](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunoregulation-by-members-of-tgfbeta-superfamily/)
- [Immune tolerance via integrin αvβ8–mediated TGFβ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-tolerance-via-integrin-αvβ8-mediated-tgfβ/)
- [The Toxoplasma effector TEEGR promotes parasite persistence](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-toxoplasma-effector-teegr-promotes-parasite-persistence/)
- [T-Cell Recall Responses in Mice Chronically Infected with Toxoplasma gondii](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-recall-responses-in-mice-chronically-infected-with-toxoplasma-gondii/)
- [Apical Organelle Secretion by Toxoplasma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/apical-organelle-secretion-by-toxoplasma/)
- [Anti-inflammatory Activity of Grains of Paradise](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/anti-inflammatory-activity-of-grains-of-paradise/)
- [Genomics of human pulmonary TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genomics-of-human-pulmonary-tb/)
- [Genetics of human susceptibility to active and latent TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genetics-of-human-susceptibility-to-active-and-latent-tb/)
- [Genetic Resistance to TB Infection and Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genetic-resistance-to-tb-infection-and-disease/)
- [Early-Life Host-Microbiome Interphase The key Frontier for Immune Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/early-life-host-microbiome-interphase-the-key-frontier-for-immune-development/)
- [How Breast Milk Protects Newborns](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/how-breast-milk-protects-newborns/)
- [How does PE affect neonates highligths in the disease s immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/how-does-pe-affect-neonates-highligths-in-the-disease-s-immunity/)
- [Immunological Tolerance, Pregnancy, and Preeclampsia The Roles of Semen Microbes and the Father](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immunological-tolerance-pregnancy-and-preeclampsia-the-roles-of-semen-microbes-and-the-father/)
- [Preeclampsia- Where do we stand for an Early Diagnosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/preeclampsia-where-do-we-stand-for-an-early-diagnosis/)
- [Sanitation for all...](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/sanitation-for-all/)
- [Nutrition the missing link in the beattle against microbial resistance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/nutrition-the-missing-link-in-the-beattle-against-microbial-resistance/)
- [Global health policy and neglected tropical](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/global-health-policy-and-neglected-tropical/)
- [How should we define health](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/how-should-we-define-health/)
- [Malaria vaccines in the eradication era](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-vaccines-in-the-eradication-era/)
- [Malaria- Biology and Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-biology-and-disease/)
- [First placental malaria vaccine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/first-placental-malaria-vaccine/)
- [Moving TB vaccines from theory to practice](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/moving-tb-vaccines-from-theory-to-practice/)
- [Tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tuberculosis-2/)
- [Interferon β-1a for the treatment of Ebola virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/interferon-β-1a-for-the-treatment-of-ebola-virus/)
- [Effective Inhibitors of Ebola Virus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/effective-inhibitors-of-ebola-virus/)
- [Ebola virus disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ebola-virus-disease/)
- [ILC in initiation and resolution of inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ilc-in-initiation-and-resolution-of-inflammation/)
- [Influence of the microbiota on vaccine effectiveness](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/influence-of-the-microbiota-on-vaccine-effectiveness/)
- [Gut microbiota](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gut-microbiota/)
- [Innate Lymphoid Cell Development- A T Cell Perspective](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/innate-lymphoid-cell-development-a-t-cell-perspective/)
- [New Molecular Insights into Immune Cell Development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/new-molecular-insights-into-immune-cell-development/)
- [Unique aspects of the perinatal immune system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/unique-aspects-of-the-perinatal-immune-system/)
- [Development of a transmission-blocking malaria vaccine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/development-of-a-transmission-blocking-malaria-vaccine/)
- [Immune Responses to the Sexual Stages of Plasmodium falciparum](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-responses-to-the-sexual-stages-of-plasmodium-falciparum/)
- [The role of decidual immune cells on human pregnancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-role-of-decidual-immune-cells-on-human-pregnancy/)
- [Role of Progesterone in Feto-Maternal Immunological Cross Talk](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/role-of-progesterone-in-feto-maternal-immunological-cross-talk/)
- [Failure of Decidualization and Maternal Immune Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/failure-of-decidualization-and-maternal-immune-tolerance/)
- [Human lymphoid organ dendritic cell identity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-lymphoid-organ-dendritic-cell-identity/)
- [Direct Delivery of Antigens to Dendritic Cells via Antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/direct-delivery-of-antigens-to-dendritic-cells-via-antibodies/)
- [Dendritic cells, monocytes and macrophages- nomenclature](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dendritic-cells-monocytes-and-macrophages-nomenclature/)
- [Differential Antigen Processing by Dendritic Cell Subsets](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/differential-antigen-processing-by-dendritic-cell-subsets/)
- [Signaling tool box for tyrosine-based costimulation of lymphocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/signaling-tool-box-for-tyrosine-based-costimulation-of-lymphocytes/)
- [Clinical consequences of defects in B-cell development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/clinical-consequences-of-defects-in-b-cell-development/)
- [Memory control by the B cell antigen receptor](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/memory-control-by-the-b-cell-antigen-receptor/)
- [Unique contributions of γδ T cells to immunology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/unique-contributions-of-γδ-t-cells-to-immunology-2/)
- [Human Vγ9Vδ2 T Lymphocytes in the Immune Response to P. falciparum](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-vγ9vδ2-t-lymphocytes-in-the-immune-response-to-p-falciparum/)
- [Tissue-resident memory T cells- local specialists in immune defence](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tissue-resident-memory-t-cells-local-specialists-in-immune-defence-2/)
- [Central CD4+ T cell Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/central-cd4-t-cell-tolerance/)
- [Natural killer cell regulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/natural-killer-cell-regulation/)
- [Mechanisms of natural killer cell-mediated cellular cytotoxicity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mechanisms-of-natural-killer-cell-mediated-cellular-cytotoxicity/)
- [Advances in Immunolgy - Vol 124](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/advances-in-immunolgy-vol-124/)
- [Cytomegalovirus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cytomegalovirus/)
- [Genomics of Immune Diseases and New Therapies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/genomics-of-immune-diseases-and-new-therapies/)
- [Autoimmune Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/autoimmune-inflammation/)
- [T-cell replete haploidentical transplantation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-replete-haploidentical-transplantation/)
- [Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Mobilization-a Look Ahead](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/peripheral-blood-stem-cell-mobilization-a-look-ahead/)
- [Hematopoietic Stem Cell transplantation in PIDs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hematopoietic-stem-cell-transplantation-in-pids/)
- [Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in its 60s](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hematopoietic-stem-cell-transplantation-in-its-60s/)
- [Antibody and Graft outcome - Solid Organ Transplantation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/antibody-and-graft-outcome-solid-organ-transplantation/)
- [Intraclonal generation of antibody mutants in germinal centres](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/intraclonal-generation-of-antibody-mutants-in-germinal-centres/)
- [Targeting T Cell Co-receptors for Cancer Therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/targeting-t-cell-co-receptors-for-cancer-therapy/)
- [Immune Checkpoint Targeting in Cancer Therapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-checkpoint-targeting-in-cancer-therapy-2/)
- [Cancer immunotherapy comes of age](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cancer-immunotherapy-comes-of-age/)
- [MicroRNAs and Cellular Components of Tumour Microenvironment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/micrornas-and-cellular-components-of-tumour-microenvironment/)
- [Role of Microenvironment on Disseminating Cancer Stem Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/role-of-microenvironment-on-disseminating-cancer-stem-cells/)
- [Immune dysregulation syndrome in humans with CTLA4 mutations](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-dysregulation-syndrome-in-humans-with-ctla4-mutations/)
- [Autoimmune and inflammatory manifestations occur in patients with PIDs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/autoimmune-and-inflammatory-manifestations-occur-in-patients-with-pids/)
- [Autoimmunity and primary immunodeficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/autoimmunity-and-primary-immunodeficiency-2/)
- [Microbial metabolite desaminotyrosine protects from influenza](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/microbial-metabolite-desaminotyrosine-protects-from-influenza/)
- [CTLA-4 blockade relies on the gut microbiota](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ctla-4-blockade-relies-on-the-gut-microbiota/)
- [Impact of non-antibiotic drugs on human gut bacteria](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/impact-of-non-antibiotic-drugs-on-human-gut-bacteria/)
- [Innate immunity and intestinal microbiota - Type 1 diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/innate-immunity-and-intestinal-microbiota-type-1-diabetes/)
- [Pathogenicity of IgG from patients with anti-SRP or HMGCR autoantibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/pathogenicity-of-igg-from-patients-with-anti-srp-or-hmgcr-autoantibodies/)
- [Myositis-specific autoantibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/myositis-specific-autoantibodies/)
- [Autoimmune Myopathies- Where do we stand](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/autoimmune-myopathies-where-do-we-stand/)
- [T cell responses in the central nervous system](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-responses-in-the-central-nervous-system/)
- [Autoreactive CD4+ T Cells in Multiple Sclerosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/autoreactive-cd4-t-cells-in-multiple-sclerosis/)
- [Succinate Dehydrogenase -Macrophage Metabolic Remodeling and Regulation of Inflammation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/succinate-dehydrogenase-macrophage-metabolic-remodeling-and-regulation-of-inflammation/)
- [NLRP3 Inflammasome Promotes Thymic Demise and Immunosenescence](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/nlrp3-inflammasome-promotes-thymic-demise-and-immunosenescence/)
- [Inflammasome-driven catecholamine catabolism in macrophages](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/inflammasome-driven-catecholamine-catabolism-in-macrophages/)
- [Recent progress in CTLA-4 biology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/recent-progress-in-ctla-4-biology/)
- [AIRE expands - new roles in immune tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/aire-expands-new-roles-in-immune-tolerance/)
- [Historical Overview of Immunological Tolerance](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/historical-overview-of-immunological-tolerance/)
- [Human B cell repertoire diversity and convergence](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-b-cell-repertoire-diversity-and-convergence/)
- [Checkpoints that control B cell development](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/checkpoints-that-control-b-cell-development-2/)
- [Tissue-resident memory T cells after antiviral recall responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tissue-resident-memory-t-cells-after-antiviral-recall-responses/)
- [Tissue-resident memory T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tissue-resident-memory-t-cells/)
- [Regulatory T Cells- Mechanisms of Differentiation and Function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulatory-t-cells-mechanisms-of-differentiation-and-function/)
- [Regulatory T cells in nonlymphoid tissues](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/regulatory-t-cells-in-nonlymphoid-tissues/)
- [Molecular control of regulatory T cell development and function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/molecular-control-of-regulatory-t-cell-development-and-function/)
- [Not All Immune Checkpoints Are Created Equal](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/not-all-immune-checkpoints-are-created-equal/)
- [CTLA-4 checkpoint in the maintenance of immune homeostasis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ctla-4-checkpoint-in-the-maintenance-of-immune-homeostasis/)
- [CD28 superagonist TGN1412 and its return as TAB08](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cd28-superagonist-tgn1412-and-its-return-as-tab08/)
- [MHC and Transplantation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mhc-and-transplantation/)
- [Major Histocompatibility Complex](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/major-histocompatibility-complex/)
- [Tissue-resident memory T cells and solid tumors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tissue-resident-memory-t-cells-and-solid-tumors/)
- [Lymph-Node-Resident Memory T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/lymph-node-resident-memory-t-cells/)
- [Efficiecy of Vgamma9Vdelta2 T- cell Immunotherapy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/efficiecy-of-vgamma9vdelta2-t-cell-immunotherapy/)
- [gamma-delta T Lymphocytes in Antitumor Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gamma-delta-t-lymphocytes-in-antitumor-immunity/)
- [Principles of Engineering Immune Cells to Treat Cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/principles-of-engineering-immune-cells-to-treat-cancer/)
- [Eradication of systemic B-cell tumors by genetically targeted human T lymphocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/eradication-of-systemic-b-cell-tumors-by-genetically-targeted-human-t-lymphocytes/)
- [CAR T-cell immunotherapy for human cancer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/car-t-cell-immunotherapy-for-human-cancer/)
- [Unraveling the Genetics of Autoimmunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/unraveling-the-genetics-of-autoimmunity/)
- [HLA variation and disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hla-variation-and-disease/)
- [The multiple pathways to autoimmunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-multiple-pathways-to-autoimmunity/)
- [Vaccine against schistosomiasis using bioinformatics](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/vaccine-against-schistosomiasis-using-bioinformatics/)
- [The Immune Epitope Database](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-immune-epitope-database/)
- [The effects of imidazoquinolines on TLR8](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/the-effects-of-imidazoquinolines-on-tlr8/)
- [Structural Reorganization of the Toll-Like Receptor 8 Dimer](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/structural-reorganization-of-the-toll-like-receptor-8-dimer/)
- [Epitope Discovery and Synthetic vaccine Design](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/epitope-discovery-and-synthetic-vaccine-design/)
- [Chagas disease diagnostic applications](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/chagas-disease-diagnostic-applications/)
- [Transcriptional profile non-infected AMs from TB patients](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/transcriptional-profile-non-infected-ams-from-tb-patients/)
- [Th1Th17 polarization persists following wholecell pertussis vaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/th1th17-polarization-persists-following-wholecell-pertussis-vaccination/)
- [Selection of immunodominant and preserved epitope Sm043300e](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/selection-of-immunodominant-and-preserved-epitope-sm043300e/)
- [S.mansoni infection - multi-omic and immunoinformatics data](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/s-mansoni-infection-multi-omic-and-immunoinformatics-data/)
- [Next-generation ELISA diagnostic assay for Chagas Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/next-generation-elisa-diagnostic-assay-for-chagas-disease/)
- [Mapping Antigenic Motifs in the Trypomastigote Small Surface Antigen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mapping-antigenic-motifs-in-the-trypomastigote-small-surface-antigen/)
- [Human CD4 effector memory T cells re-expressing CD45RA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-cd4-effector-memory-t-cells-re-expressing-cd45ra/)
- [High-resolution profiling of linear B-cell epitopes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/high-resolution-profiling-of-linear-b-cell-epitopes/)
- [Multiparameter computational modeling of tumor invasion](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/multiparameter-computational-modeling-of-tumor-invasion/)
- [A Minimal Regulatory Network of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-minimal-regulatory-network-of-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-factors/)
- [A network model - control of differentiation in Th cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/a-network-model-control-of-differentiation-in-th-cells/)
- [CD4+ T cell regulatory network - A simulation study](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cd4-t-cell-regulatory-network-a-simulation-study/)
- [Gene regulatory network - immortalization of epithelial cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gene-regulatory-network-immortalization-of-epithelial-cells/)
- [Mathematical Modeling of Strep pneumoniae](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mathematical-modeling-of-strep-pneumoniae/)
- [Modeling methods for medical systems biology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/modeling-methods-for-medical-systems-biology/)
- [HIV Vaccines - O.Dintwe](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-vaccines-o-dintwe/)
- [Humoral responses to HIV-1 -G.Ferrari](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/humoral-responses-to-hiv-1-g-ferrari/)
- [Poster Tips - G.Ferrari](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/poster-tips-g-ferrari/)
- [TB vaccines - E.Nemes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tb-vaccines-e-nemes/)
- [Innate Signature of HIV Vaccines - E.Andersen-Nissen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/innate-signature-of-hiv-vaccines-e-andersen-nissen/)
- [B Cell Biology - T.Moody](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/b-cell-biology-t-moody/)
- [Presenting Advice - T.Moody](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/presenting-advice-t-moody/)
- [Malaria Vaccine Strategies - S.Draper](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-vaccine-strategies-s-draper/)
- [Protective Immunity Against HIV - R.Koup](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/protective-immunity-against-hiv-r-koup/)
- [Fc Effector Function and HIV Neutralization - S.Richardson](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/fc-effector-function-and-hiv-neutralization-s-richardson/)
- [TB progression - T.Scriba](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tb-progression-t-scriba/)
- [Pulmonary Immune Response to TB - H.Mwandumba](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/pulmonary-immune-response-to-tb-h-mwandumba/)
- [Visualising HIV Transmission and Prevention - T.Hope](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/visualising-hiv-transmission-and-prevention-t-hope/)
- [Reactivation of Latent TB in Macaques Infected with SIV Is Associated with Early Peripheral T Cell Depletion and Not Virus Load](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/reactivation-of-latent-tb-in-macaques-infected-with-siv-is-associated-with-early-peripheral-t-cell-depletion-and-not-virus-load/)
- [T cell residency and recirculation in HIV infection-M.Betts](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/t-cell-residency-and-recirculation-in-hiv-infection-m-betts/)
- [Role of Mucosal Microbiota in HIV Susceptibility - H.Jaspan](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/role-of-mucosal-microbiota-in-hiv-susceptibility-h-jaspan/)
- [Immune Regulation in the Respiratory Mucosa- K.Jambo](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-regulation-in-the-respiratory-mucosa-k-jambo/)
- [Grant Writing Workshop-M.Betts](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/grant-writing-workshop-m-betts/)
- [Grant Writing Resource - C.Gray](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/grant-writing-resource-c-gray/)
- [Clinical Testing of TB Vaccine Candidates](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/clinical-testing-of-tb-vaccine-candidates/)
- [Early antibody therapy - long-lasting immunity to SHIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/early-antibody-therapy-long-lasting-immunity-to-shiv/)
- [M.tb Infection - H4-IC31 Vaccine or BCG Revaccination](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/m-tb-infection-h4-ic31-vaccine-or-bcg-revaccination/)
- [Structure of malaria invasion protein RH5](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/structure-of-malaria-invasion-protein-rh5/)
- [Malaria Vaccines-Recent Advances and New Horizons](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-vaccines-recent-advances-and-new-horizons/)
- [Malaria transmission-blocking vaccine antigen Pfs25](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/malaria-transmission-blocking-vaccine-antigen-pfs25/)
- [Human monoclonal antibody prevents malaria infection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-monoclonal-antibody-prevents-malaria-infection/)
- [Subtype C ALVAC-HIV and bivalent subtype C gp120-MF59 HIV-1 vaccine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/subtype-c-alvac-hiv-and-bivalent-subtype-c-gp120-mf59-hiv-1-vaccine/)
- [Vaccinology in the era of highthroughput biology](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/vaccinology-in-the-era-of-highthroughput-biology/)
- [RTS,S malaria vaccination in humans](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/rtss-malaria-vaccination-in-humans/)
- [Merck Ad5-HIV induces broad innate immune activation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/merck-ad5-hiv-induces-broad-innate-immune-activation/)
- [Ig Constant Region Effects on Variable Region](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ig-constant-region-effects-on-variable-region/)
- [HIV-specific Fc effector function](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-specific-fc-effector-function/)
- [Tuberculosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tuberculosis/)
- [Inflammatory processes define M. tuberculosis infection to TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/inflammatory-processes-define-m-tuberculosis-infection-to-tb/)
- [Incipient and Subclinical TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/incipient-and-subclinical-tb/)
- [Characterization of progressive HIV-associated TB](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/characterization-of-progressive-hiv-associated-tb/)
- [Mtb segregates with host macrophage metabolism and ontogeny](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mtb-segregates-with-host-macrophage-metabolism-and-ontogeny/)
- [HIV Individuals on ART Exhibit Impaired Lung CD4+ T-Cell Responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-individuals-on-art-exhibit-impaired-lung-cd4-t-cell-responses/)
- [Growth of Mtb after macrophage death leads to killing of host cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/growth-of-mtb-after-macrophage-death-leads-to-killing-of-host-cells/)
- [Microanatomic segregation - apoptosis in the germinal center](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/microanatomic-segregation-apoptosis-in-the-germinal-center/)
- [Memory B cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/memory-b-cells/)
- [Superinfection Drives HIV Neutralizing Antibody Responses -B Cell Lineages](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/superinfection-drives-hiv-neutralizing-antibody-responses-b-cell-lineages/)
- [HIV-1 Superinfection - Neutralizing Antibody Response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-1-superinfection-neutralizing-antibody-response/)
- [Lung Homeostasis- Influence of Age, Microbes & Immune System](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/lung-homeostasis-influence-of-age-microbes-immune-system/)
- [Lactobacillus-Deficient Cervicovaginal Bacterial Communities - Increased HIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/lactobacillus-deficient-cervicovaginal-bacterial-communities-increased-hiv/)
- [Gut Microbial Composition Associates With Peripheral T-Cell Activation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gut-microbial-composition-associates-with-peripheral-t-cell-activation/)
- [Follicular CD8+ T cells in pathogenic SIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/follicular-cd8-t-cells-in-pathogenic-siv/)
- [Tissue-Resident Memory CD8+ T Cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/tissue-resident-memory-cd8-t-cells/)
- [HIV-specific resident memory CD8+ T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-specific-resident-memory-cd8-t-cells/)
- [HIV-1-specific gastrointestinal tissue resident CD8+ T-cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-1-specific-gastrointestinal-tissue-resident-cd8-t-cells/)
- [Circulating and Tissue-Resident Memory T Cell Subsets](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/circulating-and-tissue-resident-memory-t-cell-subsets/)
- [Endogenous or Exogenous Progestins Promote Virus-Target Cell Interactions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/endogenous-or-exogenous-progestins-promote-virus-target-cell-interactions/)
- [SIV- Infection throughout Female Reproductive Tract](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/siv-infection-throughout-female-reproductive-tract/)
- [Th17 cells are preferentially infected in SIV](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/th17-cells-are-preferentially-infected-in-siv/)
- [HIV-AIDS Vaccines-J.Oyugi](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-aids-vaccines-j-oyugi/)
- [Virally Induced Tumors in Immunodeficiency-R.Schmidt](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/virally-induced-tumors-in-immunodeficiency-r-schmidt/)
- [Human Papillomavirus-M.Mueller](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/human-papillomavirus-m-mueller/)
- [Adeno-associated virus-M.Mueller](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/adeno-associated-virus-m-mueller/)
- [HTLV and Leukaemia-A.Rowan](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/htlv-and-leukaemia-a-rowan/)
- [Zika virus-Group E](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/zika-virus-group-e/)
- [Dengue virus-Group G](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/dengue-virus-group-g/)
- [Coronovirus-Group H](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/coronovirus-group-h/)
- [Chikungunya virus-Group F](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/chikungunya-virus-group-f/)
- [Chronic viral hepatitis and HCC-A.Boonstra](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/chronic-viral-hepatitis-and-hcc-a-boonstra/)
- [EBV and Burkitt lymphoma-A.Moormann](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ebv-and-burkitt-lymphoma-a-moormann/)
- [Global outbreaks-IFNs as 1st responders-E.Fish](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/global-outbreaks-ifns-as-1st-responders-e-fish/)
- [EboV Vaccines-Group A](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ebov-vaccines-group-a/)
- [HCV Vaccine Status - Group B](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hcv-vaccine-status-group-b/)
- [Seasonal flu vaccine challenges-Group C](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/seasonal-flu-vaccine-challenges-group-c/)
- [HIV vaccines-Group D](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/hiv-vaccines-group-d/)
- [Innate and adaptive immunity-E.Fish](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/innate-and-adaptive-immunity-e-fish/)
- [gamma-delta T-cells-D.Kabelitz](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/gamma-delta-t-cells-d-kabelitz/)
- [Flow Cytometry-H.Maecker](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/flow-cytometry-h-maecker/)
- [CMV and Cancers-H.Maecker](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cmv-and-cancers-h-maecker/)
- [Cytokines as biomarkers for HCV-B.Loueslati](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/cytokines-as-biomarkers-for-hcv-b-loueslati/)
- [FLP Application Form](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/flp-application-form/)
- [Post-Transplantation Lymphoproliferative Disorders in Adults](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/post-transplantation-lymphoproliferative-disorders-in-adults/)
- [Immune Deficiency with Magnesium Defect](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/immune-deficiency-with-magnesium-defect/)
- [EBV infection in primary immunodeficiency](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/ebv-infection-in-primary-immunodeficiency/)
- [Combined immunodeficiency and EBV induced B cell malignancy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/combined-immunodeficiency-and-ebv-induced-b-cell-malignancy/)
- [MiRNA-891a-5p mediates HIV-1 Tat and KSHV Orf-K1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/download/mirna-891a-5p-mediates-hiv-1-tat-and-kshv-orf-k1/)

## CM Tooltip Glossary

- [CD antigen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cd-antigen/) - CD (Cluster of Differentiation) antigen is a cell-membrane bound molecule used to differentiate leukocyte populations. Internationally standardized nomenclature for antigens on cell surfaces
- [CD Nomenclature](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cd-nomenclature/) - CD antigens are cell-surface molecules expressed on leukocytes and other cells relevant for the immune system. CD nomenclature has been universally adopted by the scientific community, it provides a unified designation system for monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), as well as for the cell-surface molecules they recognize. A non-descriptive cluster of differentiation number (CD followed by a
- [Replication forks](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/replication-forks/) - During S-phase, DNA replication begins at replication origins, where recruited helicase unwinds a portion of the DNA helix. This allows DNA polymerase (along with other enzymes of replication) access to parent DNA templates, in order to synthesise daughter strands. The unwound portion of DNA forms a loop, flanked by Y-shaped ‘forks’ where DNA remains helical.
- [Mitotic spindle](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/mitotic-spindle/) - The molecular ‘motor’ that will segregate chromatids to daughter cells during mitosis.It is composed of polar centrosomes from which microtubules extend towards the equatorial chromatid plate, forming a spindle-shaped structure. References: Walczak CE and Heald R. Mechanisms of mitotic spindle assembly and function.Int Rev Cytol.2008; 265. O'Connell CB and Khodjakov AL. Cooperative mechanisms of mitotic
- [Centrosome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/centrosome/) - The central regulator of microtubule cytoskeleton organisation. It consists of a pair of cylindrical centrioles, made up of microtubules. At the start of G1, the single centrosome must be duplicated. References: Nigg EA and Stearns T. The centrosome cycle: Centriole biogenesis, duplication and inherent asymmetries. Nature Cell Biology 2011; 13. Holland AJ et al. Centriole
- [TNF-α](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/tnf/) - Induces the expression of other autocrine growth factors, increases cellular responsiveness to growth factors and induces signalling pathways that lead to proliferation.
- [cellular enzymes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cellular-enzymes/) - A protein secreted by the body that promotes or accelerates a change in another substance. An example is: amylase a digestive enzyme required for the breakdown of carbohydrates
- [Xenograft](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/xenograft/) - Graft of tissue from one species to another
- [V region](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/v-region/) - Amino-terminal domain of an immunoglobulin molecule; it contains the CDRs that make up the antigen binding site
- [Tuberculin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/tuberculin/) - Crude protein fraction from Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture supernatant; used for skin test for M.tb. exposure
- [Thymus-dependent antigen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/thymus-dependent-antigen/) - Soluble protein that can induce antibody production only with help of T helper cells; response involves isotype switching, affinity maturation and memory cell development
- [Thymocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/thymocyte/) - Developing T cells present in the thymus
- [Thymus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/thymus/) - Primary lymphoid organ located in the thorax where T cell maturation takes place.
- [T helper cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/t-helper-cell/) - T cells (CD4+) that are activated by antigen to provide signals (e.g. cytokines) that regulate immune responses
- [T cytotoxic cell ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/t-cytotoxic-cell/) - An effector T cell (CD8+) that can mediate lysis of target cells in an antigen specific manner
- [T cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/t-cell/) - A lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and expresses a T cell receptor.
- [Somatic hypermutation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/somatic-hypermutation/) - A mechanism that introduces point mutations into antibody genes during activation and proliferation of B cells to improve antibody affinity.
- [Serum](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/serum/) - Fluid portion of the blood that is free of cells and clotting factors.
- [Secondary lymphoid organs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/secondary-lymphoid-organs/) - Organs in which mature, immunocompetent lymphocytes encounter antigen and develop into effector cells. Lymph nodes, spleen, MALT are secondary lymphoid organs.
- [Secondary immune response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/secondary-immune-response/) - The immune response that is induced by a second encounter with an antigen.
- [SCID](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/scid/) - Severe Combined Immunodeficiency. Condition where adaptive immune responses do not occur due to a lack of T and B cells
- [Primary lymphoid organs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/primary-lymphoid-organs/) - Organs in which lymphocyte precursors develop into mature, immunocompetent cells. The bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs in mammals where B and T cells develop respectively.
- [Primary immune response](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/primary-immune-response/) - The immune response that is initiated by the first encounter with the antigen which activates naïve lymphocytes.
- [Polyclonal antibody](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/polyclonal-antibody/) - Mixture of antibodies derived from different B cell clones that have recognized the same antigen.
- [Plasma cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/plasma-cell/) - Antibody secreting cell derived from B cells.
- [Plasma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/plasma/) - Cell-free fluid portion of the blood that contains all clotting factors
- [Phagosome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/phagosome/) - Intracellular body containing ingested particulate material.
- [Phagolysosome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/phagolysosome/) - Intracellular body formed by fusion of lysosome and phagosome.
- [Phagocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/phagocyte/) - Cell with the capacity to internalize and degrade pathogens or antigens; neutrophils and macrophages/monocytes are main phagocytes.
- [Peyer’s patch](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/peyers-patch/) - Lymphoid follicles located along the wall of the small intestine and trap antigens from the gastro-intestinal tract.
- [Paracrine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/paracrine/) - A form of cell signalling in which a messenger molecule (e.g. cytokine or hormone) arrive to target cell via diffusion from nearby cells.
- [Osteoclast](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/osteoclast/) - A bone macrophage.
- [Opsonization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/opsonization/) - Coating of antigen with opsonin enhancing phagocytosis.
- [Opsonin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/opsonin/) - A substance that promotes phagocytosis, e.g. antibody or complement.
- [NK T cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/nk-t-cell/) - Lymphocyte with characteristics of NK cells, but expresses a T cell receptor.
- [Neutrophil](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/neutrophil/) - A circulating, short-lived, phagocytic granulocyte. Most numerous white blood cell (up to 70%).
- [Natural killer (NK) cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/natural-killer-nk-cell/) - Large, granular lymphocytes that do not express T or B cell receptors.
- [Naïve lymphocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/naive-lymphocyte/) - Mature B and T cells that have not encountered antigen.
- [Monocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/monocyte/) - Mononuclear, phagocytic cell that circulates in the blood stream and differentiates into macrophages in the tissue.
- [Monoclonal antibody](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/monoclonal-antibody/) - Antibodies produced by a single clone of B cells or hybridoma cells
- [MHC ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/mhc/) - Major Histocompatibility Complex.
- [Memory cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/memory-cell/) - Lymphocytes generated following encounters with antigen; rapidly mediate secondary immune responses to subsequent encounters with the antigen.
- [Mast cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/mast-cell/) - Bone-marrow derived, granulated, tissue cell resembling basophils.
- [MALT](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/malt/) - Mucosal-Associated-Lymphoid-Tissue. Lymphoid tissue located along the mucosal membranes.
- [Macrophage](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/macrophage/) - Mononuclear, phagocytic cell that plays a role in innate and adaptive immunity.
- [Lysosome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/lysosome/) - ntracellular body containing hydrolytic enzymes; important for degrading material ingested by phagocytosis.
- [Lymphocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/lymphocyte-2/) - B cells, T cells and natural killer (NK)cells
- [Ligand](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/ligand/) - Any molecule recognized by a receptor.
- [Leukotriens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/leukotriens/) - Group of lipid mediators of inflammatory responses.
- [Leukocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/leukocytes/) - White blood cells, including granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes and platelets.
- [Langerhans cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/langerhans-cell/) - Type of dendritic cell found in the skin.
- [Kupffer cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/kupffer-cell/) - Type of tissue macrophage found in the liver.
- [knock out mouse](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/knock-out-mouse/) - Transgenic mouse that lacks a certain functional gene.
- [Isotype](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/isotype/) - Antibody class that is determined by the constant region of the heavy chain. Human antibody isotypes are IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM.
- [Interleukin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/interleukin/) - Group of cytokines that primarily regulate immune responses and mediate cell differentiation and proliferation.
- [Interferon](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/interferon/) - Group of cytokines that induce an antiviral state or regulate immune responses.
- [Innate immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/innate-immunity/) - Non-specific host defences that exist already prior to an antigen.
- [Immunoglobulin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/immunoglobulin/) - Antibody or the heavy and light chains of antibodies
- [Immunogen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/immunogen/) - A substance capable of eliciting a immune response. All immunogens are antigens, but some antigen are not immunogens (e.g. haptens)
- [Immune complex](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/immune-complex/) - Complex of antibody bound to antigen.
- [Hybridoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hybridoma/) - A clone of hybrid cells formed by fusion of lymphocytes with myeloma cell lines. Hybridomas produce monoclonal antibodies.
- [Humoral immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/humoral-immunity/) - Antibody mediated immunity.
- [Homologous](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/homologous/) - Originating from the same species.
- [HLA complex](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hla-complex/) - Human leucocyte antigen complex. Term for the MHC in humans.
- [Histocompatibility ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/histocompatibility/) - The property of transplant acceptance among different individuals.
- [Heterologous](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/heterologous/) - Originating from a different species.
- [Hapten](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hapten/) - Low-molecular weight molecule that can be made immunogenic by linking to a large molecule.
- [Haplotype](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/haplotype/) - A set of genetic determinants on a single chromosome; commonly used in reference to the MHC genes.
- [Granuloma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/granuloma/) - A cellular structure that arises as a consequence of a chronic inflammatory response in an attempt to enclose foreign substances. Granulomas consist mainly of macrophages but also contain lymphocytes and granulocytes
- [Granulocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/granulocyte/) - Any leukocyte that contains cytoplasmic granules, particularly neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
- [Germinal Centre](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/germinal-centre/) - A region in lymph nodes or spleen where B cell activation, proliferation, somatic hypermutation, selection and differentiation into plasma and memory cells occurs.
- [Fc receptor](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/fc-receptor/) - Cell surface receptors specific for Fc portions of the certain antibody subclasses
- [Fc fragment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/fc-fragment/) - Constant, non-antigen binding region of the antibody molecule. Possesses binding sites for Fc receptors and complement.
- [Fab Fragment](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/fab-fragment/) - Region of the antibody molecule that contains antigen binding site
- [Epitope](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/epitope/) - The part of an antigen that is recognized by an antibody or T cell receptor.
- [Eosinophil](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/eosinophil/) - A granulocyte that plays a role in allergies and defence against extracellular parasites. Eosinophils make up about 1-5% of white blood cells.
- [Endotoxin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/endotoxin/) - Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) components of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria that are responsible for pathogenic effects.
- [Endocrine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/endocrine/) - A form of cell signalling in which a messenger molecule (e.g. cytokine or hormone) passes from producing cell to target cell via blood steam.
- [ELISA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/elisa/) - Enzyme-Linked-Immuno-Sorbent-Assay. Immuno-assay for quantitative analysis of antigen concentrations
- [Effector cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/effector-cell/) - Any cell capable of mediating an immune function
- [Dendritic cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/dendritic-cells/) - Professional antigen presenting cell (APC). They express MHC class II molecules and are efficient presenters of antigen to T cells.
- [Degranulation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/degranulation/) - Discharge of contents stored in intracellular granules following cell activation.
- [Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cytotoxic-t-lymphocyte-ctl/) - An effector T cell (CD8+) that can mediate lysis of target cells
- [Cytokine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cytokine/) - A group of secreted, low-molecular weight molecules that regulate immune responses. The actions of cytokines are mediated through specific cytokine receptors on the surfaces of target cells
- [Congenic](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/congenic/) - Denoting individuals that differ genetically at a single locus or region
- [Chemokine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/chemokine/) - A group of secreted, low-molecular weight molecules that mediate chemotaxis for leukocytes and regulate expression of adhesion molecules
- [Bursa of Fabricius](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/bursa-of-fabricius/) - Primary lymphoid organ in birds where B cell maturation occurs. Functional equivalent to bone marrow in mammals.
- [Basophil](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/basophil/) - A non-phagocytotic granulocyte that binds IgE and degranulates upon activation. Least common granulocyte (0.01%-0.3% of white blood cells).
- [B cell receptor (BCR)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/b-cell-receptor-bcr/) - Receptor complex comprising a membrane bound immunoglobulin and two signalling units.
- [B cell](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/b-cell/) - A lymphocyte that expresses B cell receptor. Differentiates into memory B cells or antibody secreting plasma cells after encounter with antigen. Abbreviation “B” derives from “Bursa of fabricius”
- [Autologous](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/autologous/) - Transplanted cells or tissue from the same individual.
- [Autocrine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/autocrine/) - A form of cell signalling in which a cell secrets a messenger molecule (e.g. cytokine) that binds to receptors on the same cell.
- [Apoptosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/apoptosis/) - Programmed cell death.
- [Antigen presenting cell (APC)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/antigen-presenting-cell-apc/) - Any cell that can process and present antigen on MHC class II molecules. The deliver co-stimulatory signals necessary for T cell activation. Professional antigen presenting cells include macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells.
- [Antigen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/antigen/) - A usually foreign substance that is recognized by the immune system and binds to T and B cell receptors.
- [Antibody](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/antibody/) - A protein (immunoglobulin) that recognizes a particular epitope on an antigen and that facilitates clearance of the antigen. Membrane bound antibody is expressed by B cells as B cell receptor. Soluble antibody is produced by plasma cells.
- [Anergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/anergy/) - A state of unresponsiveness to antigen.
- [Allotype ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/allotype/) - A set of antigens that varies among members of one species.
- [Allogenic ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/allogenic/) - Members of the same species that differ genetically.
- [Affinity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/affinity/) - Binding strength between ligand and binding site, e.g. antigen and antibody.
- [Affinity maturation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/affinity-maturation/) - Process that increases antibody affinity that occurs during adaptive, thymus dependent immune responses.
- [Adjuvant](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/adjuvant/) - A substance (e.g. alum, Freud’s adjuvant, LPS) that non-specifically enhances the immune response to an antigen.
- [Adaptive immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/adaptive-immunity/) - Host defences mediated by B and T cells that exhibits antigen specificity and memory. see innate immunity.
- [Ziehl-Neelsen stain](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/ziehl-neelsen-stain/) - It is also known as the acid-fast stain and was first described by two German doctors Ziehl and Neelsen. It is a special bacteriological stain used to identify acid-fast Mycobacteria. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the most important of this group, as it is responsible for tuberculosis (TB). It can also be used to stain other bacteria such as Nocardia.
- [wild-type](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/wild-type/) - The naturally-occurring, non-mutated version of a gene.
- [viral load](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/viral-load/) - Viral load is a measure of the amount of viral particles of RNA in the blood, and is reported as “copies per millilitre”. With early infection this number is often as high as one million. High set points, e.g. over 100,000 copies/ml, are associated with a higher risk of disease progression, i.e. developing AIDS and death. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can lower the viral load in the blood to a level lower than our ability to measure it – this is then called an 'undetectable' viral load. A person on ART who achieves this level is still HIV+ and still able to spread the virus. Determination of viral load is part of the therapy monitoring during chronic viral infections and in immunocompromised patients. Viral load can be measured using either probes (bDNA) or polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
- [translocation ability](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/translocation-ability/) - Rearrangement of a chromosome in which a segment is moved from one location to another, either within the same chromosome or to another chromosome. This is sometimes reciprocal, when one fragment is exchanged for another.
- [substrate](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/substrate/) - Molecule upon which an enzyme acts
- [structural conformation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/structural-conformation/) - The 3- dimensional shape of a molecular entity.
- [Spongiosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/spongiosis/) - Increased intercellular fluid in the epidermis that physically pulls keratinocytes away from each other. If severe, spongiosis will cause intraepidermal vesicles (spongiotic vesicles).
- [secondary immunodeficiencies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/secondary-immunodeficiencies/) - Are impairments of the immune system due to an illness in a previously healthy person.
- [reverse transcription](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/reverse-transcription/) - Method by which single-stranded RNA is converted to double-stranded DNA. The enzyme reverse transcriptase is required.
- [reverse transcriptase](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/reverse-transcriptase/) - This is also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, and is a DNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA into double-stranded DNA. (Normal transcription involves the synthesis of RNA from DNA, hence reverse transcription is the reverse of this).
- [resistance mutations](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/resistance-mutations/) - During the viral replication process some mutations cause the virus to become resistant to one or more antiretroviral drugs, so that the drug is no longer effective against the resistant strain of virus. This new resistant virus is therefore able to replicate in the presence of the drug.
- [replacement feeding](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/replacement-feeding/) - Feeding infants who are not receiving breast milk with a formula feed that provides the nutrients the infants need until the age at which they can be fully fed on family foods.
- [proteolytic](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/proteolytic/) - The ability to break down protein molecules.
- [primary structure](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/primary-structure/) - The specific amino acid sequence of a protein.
- [primary immunodeficiencies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/primary-immunodeficiencies/) - Are defects of B cells, T cells, phagocytic cells or complement.
- [postnatal transmission](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/postnatal-transmission/) - Mother-to-child transmission of HIV after delivery, through breastfeeding.
- [post translocation site (p site)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/post-translocation-site-p-site/) - The large ribosomal subunit contains three transfer RNA (tRNA) binding sites, one of them is the p-site. The p-site binds a peptidyl-tRNA which is a tRNA bound to the peptide being synthesized.
- [polymerisation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/polymerisation/) - The formation of a complex compound (polymer) by linking together many smaller elements.
- [phosphorylation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/phosphorylation/) - The process of adding phosphate groups to a compound such as a protein.
- [phosphate group](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/phosphate-group/) - A functional group important in energy transfer.
- [peripartum transmission](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/peripartum-transmission/) - Mother-to-child transmission of HIV occurring shortly before, during or immediately after delivery.
- [peptide chains](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/peptide-chains/) - Short molecules formed from the linking of amino acids in a defined order. The link between the amino acids is referred to as a peptide or amide bond. Proteins consist of multiple polypeptide subunits.
- [P24 antigen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/p24-antigen/) - P24 is a protein found in HIV that is detectable within a week of exposure to the virus. However, it becomes undetectable after approximately 4 weeks. Later in the course of HIV it becomes detectable again.
- [nucleotide base analogues](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/nucleotide-base-analogues/) - A chemical whose molecular structure mimics that of a DNA base; because of the mimicry, the analogue may act as a mutagen.
- [nucleotide](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/nucleotide/) - The structural unit of RNA, DNA and some co-factors. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine), a phosphate molecule and a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose).
- [NRTI-triphosphate](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/nrti-triphosphate/) - Phosphorylated form of NRTI, allowing incorporation into the virus and interference with replication.
- [neonate](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/neonate/) - Denotes the period from birth through the first 28 days of life.
- [naïve lymphocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/naive-lymphocytes/) - Lymphocytes that have not previously been stimulated by an antigen. Those from the thymus being naïve T cells and those from bone marrow being naïve B cells.
- [mutant reverse transcriptase](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/mutant-reverse-transcriptase/) - The reverse transcriptase enzyme contains a mutation, making it resistant to antiretroviral drugs.
- [mutagen](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/mutagen/) - An agent that is capable of increasing the mutation rate.
- [multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/multidrug-resistant-tuberculosis-mdr-tb/) - Disease caused by a strain of M. tuberculosis that is resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin.
- [lymphoma](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/lymphoma/) - It is a type of cancer that originates in the cells (lymphocytes) of the immune system. There are two main types of lymphomas: 1) Hodgkin lymphomas 2) Non-Hodgkin lymphomas
- [M-CSF](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/m-csf/) - Mononuclear phagocyte colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) is a secreted cytokine which influences hemopoietic stem cells to differentiate into macrophages or other related cell types.
- [mother-to-child transmission](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/mother-to-child-transmission/) - Transmission of HIV to a child from an HIV-infected mother during pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding.
- [lymphocyte](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/lymphocyte/) - A type of white blood cell that plays an important and integral role in the body's defenses. There are two main classes of lymphocytes, namely B lymphocytes (humoral immunity) and T lymphocytes (cell - mediated immunity).
- [lymphadenopathy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/lymphadenopathy/) - An abnormal enlargement of the lymph nodes, usually associated with pathology.
- [Langerhans giant cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/langerhans-giant-cells/) - They are large cells found in granulomatous conditions. They are formed by the fusion of epithelioid cells (macrophages), and contain nuclei arranged in a horseshoe-shaped pattern in the cell periphery. Their presence could indicate tuberculosis.
- [INF-γ](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/inf/) - Induces class I MHC on all somatic cells, induces class II MHC on antigen presenting cells and somatic cells, activates macrophages, neutrophils, NK cells, promotes cell-mediated immunity, antiviral effects
- [immunodeficiency diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/immunodeficiency-diseases/) - A group of diverse conditions caused by defects in the immune system. Clinically there is an increased susceptibility to infections which can be severe, recurrent and develop into chronic disease.
- [immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/immune-reconstitution-inflammatory-syndrome-iris/) - IRIS occurs in a proportion of patients with HIV infection who are also receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). They exhibit a deterioration in their clinical status, despite control of virologic and immunologic parameters, as evidenced by decreasing viral load and rising CD4 count. This clinical response results from the interaction between an improving immune system and organisms that colonised the body during earlier stages of HIV infection.
- [IL-6](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/il-6/) - Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is involved in the acute phase response. It helps to promote B cell proliferation into plasma cells, it is involved in thrombopoiesis, and is synergistic with IL-1 and TNF on T cells. This cytokine is found in increased levels in sites of inflammation.
- [IL-2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/il-2/) - Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is produced by the body and controls the proliferation of B cells, activated T cells and NK functions.
- [IL-1β](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/il-1-3/) - Interleukin 1β (IL-1β) is a proinflammatory cytokine remarkable for its broad range of functions and plays a central role in innate immune defence. It is involved in inflammation and fever, acute phase response and haematopoiesis.
- [IL-1α](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/il-1-2/) - Interleukin 1α (IL-1α) leads to co stimulation of antigen presenting cells and T cells
- [IL-1](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/il-1/) - Interleukin 1(IL-1) has many functions on many different cells and is secreted by a number of cells including macrophages, monocytes and dendritic cells. It also helps to activate T helper cells by acting as a co-stimulator with the antigen presenting cell receptors and it helps promote the maturation and clonal expansion of B cells.
- [hydroxyl group](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hydroxyl-group/) - Is used to describe the functional group -OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound.
- [human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/human-leukocyte-antigen-hla-class-ii/) - Cell surface receptors compsed of an alpha and a beta chains and expressed specialised cell types, including dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells (all of which are professional antigen presenting cells APCs), and are encoded by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes located on chromosome 6. There are three sets of genes that encode functional receptors called HLA-DP, -DQ and DR. APCs process soluble antigens such as toxins or other proteins made by bacteria (for example) and then display them on their surface as peptide antigens in combination with HLA Class II molecules. CD4+Helper T cells specific for these antigens are then able to be activated and respond to the presence of the presented peptide derived from the invading bacteria or microbe.
- [human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/human-leukocyte-antigen-hla-class-i/) - Cell surface receptors composed of an alpha chain and a non-covalently associated protein called beta-2 microglobubin that are expressed on all nucleated cells in the body and used to identify non-self protein antigens derived from the cell cytoplasm. Receptors are encoded by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes located on chromosome 6. There are three genes encoding functional receptors called HLA-A, -B and Cw. If the cell is infected by a virus, the cell displays viral peptides (or antigen) in combination with HLA class I molecules. The presence of the foreign peptide antigen binding to the HLA class I molecule activates CD8+ CTLs (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) specific for that antigen. Certain alleles of HLA class I receptors also interact with Natural Killer cells expressing killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) and play a role in detection of cancererous or virus-infected cells.
- [HLA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hla/) - HLA is Human Leukocyte Antigen which is part of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) which are a set of genes that, in part, direct T cell mediated immunity. There are two classes of MHC that are involved with directing T cell immunity: class I present peptides to CD8+ T cells and class II present peptides to CD4+ T cells. The peptides presented by either classes of MHC are derived from either “self” (own proteins) or from invading pathogens. HLA are one of the most polymorphic genes, meaning that many variants exist and the pairs of inherited genes create a unique set of immune responses in each person. HLA are known to be associated with different diseases and with transplantation compatibility/ incompatibility.
- [Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hepatitis-b-surface-antigen-hbsag/) - This is a protein antigen produced by Hepatitis B Virus (HBV). This antigen is the earliest indicator of acute hepatitis B infection and frequently identifies infected people before symptoms appear. HBsAg disappears from the blood during the recovery period. In some people (particularly those infected as children or those with a weakened immune system, such as those with AIDS), chronic infection with HBV may occur and HBsAg then remains positive. HBsAg is also positive in people who are said to be carriers (ie they have low levels of virus present but are not infectious to others).
- [Hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hepatitis-b-surface-antibody-anti-hbs/) - This is the most common test performed for the detection of Hepatitis B antibodies. Its presence indicates previous exposure to Hepatitis B Virus (HBV), but the virus is no longer present and the person cannot pass on the virus to others. The antibody also protects from future HBV infection. In addition to exposure to HBV, the antibodies can also be acquired from successful vaccination. This test is done to determine the need for vaccination (if anti-HBs is absent), or to assess successful vaccination or following an active infection.
- [Hepatitis B e-antigen (HBeAg)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hepatitis-b-e-antigen-hbeag/) - This is a viral protein associated with Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infections. Unlike the surface antigen, the e-antigen is found in the blood only when viruses are present in the blood (and not only in the liver). HBeAg is often used as a marker of infectivity. Measurement of e-antigen may also be used to monitor the effectiveness of HBV treatment. Successful treatment will usually eliminate HBeAg from the blood and lead to development of antibodies against e-antigen (anti-HBe). There are some strains of HBV that do not make e-antigen and these are especially common in the Middle East and Asia. In areas where these strains of HBV are common, testing for HBeAg is not very useful.
- [Hepatitis A virus (HAV) antibody test](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hepatitis-a-virus-hav-antibody-test/) - The Hepatitis A antibody is produced in response to infection with the hepatitis A virus or vaccine. IgM (immunoglobulin M) is the first antibody produced by the body when it is exposed to a virus and is used for early detection of infection. IgM antibodies to HAV are produced in patients who clinically present with acute hepatitis, such as jaundice, dark urine, pale colored stools, fever, and loss of appetite. IgG (immunoglobulin G) antibodies develop later and remain present for many years, protecting the person against further infection by the same virus. A total antibody test (which detects both IgM and IgG antibodies) detects both current and previous infection with HAV and is also positive after receiving the hepatitis A vaccine. It is presumed that once the body has been exposed to the virus lasting immunity develops.
- [HBV DNA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hbv-dna/) - This is a more sensitive test than HBeAg for detecting viruses in the blood stream. It is usually used in conjunction with – rather than instead of – the regular serologic tests. It may be used to monitor antiviral therapy in patients with chronic HBV infections.
- [GM-CSF](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/gm-csf/) - Granulocyte monocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a naturally occurring substance that is made by the body in response to infection or inflammation. It acts on the bone marrow to increase the number of monocytes and dendritic cells.
- [extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/extensively-drug-resistant-tuberculosis-xdr-tb/) - Disease caused by a strain of M. tuberculosis that is resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of the three injectable second-line drugs (amikacin, kanamycin, capreomycin)
- [drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/drug-resistant-tuberculosis-dr-tb/) - Disease caused by a strain of M. tuberculosis that is resistant to any anti-tuberculosis drug.
- [DNA polymerization](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/dna-polymerization/) - The enzyme DNA polymerase catalyses the replication of deoxyribonucleotides alongside a DNA strand which they use as a template. The newly-polymerized molecule is complementary to the template strand and is identical to the template's partner strand.
- [CXCR4](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cxcr4/) - Chemokine receptor 4, also known as fusin and is the natural receptor for stromal-derived-factor-1 (SDF-1). SDF-1 is also involved in chemotactic movement of cells to points of immune activity and inflammation. It is one of two co-receptors on T cells that HIV can use along with the CD4 receptor to bind to and infect cells.
- [clusters of differentiation (CD)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/clusters-of-differentiation-cd/) - Refers to cell surface antigens (Ag) that are useful in discriminating between different cell types. The cell-surface molecule is designated CD followed by a number (e.g. CD3, CD4,CD8 etc). Each CD molecule has a specific function, many of which are known and well over 200 have been classified on human cells.
- [chain-terminators](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/chain-terminators/) - Is any chemical reaction leading to the destruction of a reactive intermediate in a chain propagation step in the course of a polymerization, effectively bringing it to a halt.
- [CD8](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cd8/) - Found on Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and natural killer cells. The CD8 receptor on CTL binds to HLA class I and the interaction causes CD8 T cell activation. These cells are able to identify and kill cells infected primarily with viruses, but also many bacterial infections.
- [CD4 percentage](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cd4-percentage/) - The proportion of all lymphocytes (white blood cells) that are CD4 cells is called the CD4 percentage. In HIV-negative people, a normal result is 40%. Among HIV-positive people the CD4 percentage tends to decline as HIV disease progresses.
- [CD4](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/cd4/) - Is a receptor found on helper T cells and monocytes. The CD4 receptor on helper T cells binds to HLA class II and the interaction causes CD4 helper T cell activation. CD4+ T cells coordinate the immune response by releasing cytokines and signalling to other cells via cell-cell contact that enables others immune cells to perform their specialised functions (such as B cells). The number of CD4 cells in a sample of blood is an indicator of the health of the immune system. A normal CD4 count ranges from 500 to 1500. HIV infects and kills CD4 cells, leading to a weakened immune system and lower CD4 counts.
- [CCR5](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/ccr5/) - Chemokine receptor 5 is a protein on the surface of T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells and naturally binds to chemokines RANTES and MIP1 alpha and beta which are involved in facilitating movement of cells to points of inflammation. HIV has evolved to use CCR5 along with the CD4 receptor to bind to and enter activated T cells and macrophages.
- [binding affinity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/binding-affinity/) - In general, high affinity ligand binding results from greater intermolecular force between the ligand and its receptor. Low affinity ligand binding involves less intermolecular force between the ligand and its receptor.
- [base-pairing](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/base-pairing/) - Two nitrogenous (purine or pyrimidine) bases (adenine and thymine or guanine and cytosine) are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. The number of base pairs is often used as a measure of length of a DNA segment.
- [base analogue](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/base-analogue/) - A chemical which resembles the nucleotide bases, purine or pyrimidine, and may be incorporated into newly formed DNA.
- [Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/bacille-calmette-guerin-bcg-vaccine/) - It is a vaccine against tuberculosis that is prepared from a strain of the attenuated (weakened) live bovine tuberculosis bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mycobacterium bovis is from the same family as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and has lost its virulence in humans by being specially cultured in an artificial medium. It was developed in the 1930's and it remains the only vaccination available against tuberculosis today. It is used because it is effective in reducing the likelihood and severity of TB in infants and young children particularly tuberculous meningitis and miliary disease.
- [ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/atp-adenosine-triphosphate/) - Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleotide present in all living cells which serves as an energy source for many metabolic processes and is required for ribonucleic acid synthesis.
- [association and dissociation constant](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/association-and-dissociation-constant/) - This is a useful measure to describe the strength of binding or affinity between receptors and their ligands. The concentration of ligand required is related to whether binding is strong or weak. Association constant is a measure of the extent of a reversible association between two molecular species at equilibrium. Dissociation constant is the reciprocal.
- [antigen presenting cells (APC)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/antigen-presenting-cells-apc/) - Specialised cells that process antigens and display their peptide fragments on the cell surface. A subset of these cells, dendritic cells, can initiate naive T cell responses to antigen (Ag) by carrying out Ag processing, Ag presentation and stimulation of naïve cells into effector cells. Other APCs include macrophages and B cells, although these cannot initiate a response from naïve T cells.
- [anti-hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/anti-hepatitis-b-core-antigen-anti-hbc/) - This is an antibody to the hepatitis B core antigen. The core antigen is found on virus particles but disappears early in the course of infection. This antibody is produced during and after an acute HBV infection and is usually found in chronic HBV carriers as well as those who have cleared the virus, and usually persists for life. Anti-HBc testing is either specific for the IgM antibody, which indicates acute infection, or measures total antibody, anti-HBC, which indicates past infection which could be either acute or chronic.
- [anti-HBe](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/anti-hbe/) - This is an antibody produced in response to the Hepatitis B e antigen. In those who have recovered from acute hepatitis B infection, anti-HBe will be present along with anti-HBc and anti-HBs. In those with chronic hepatitis B, usually anti-HBe becomes positive when the virus goes into hiding or is eliminated from the body. In strains that do not make HBe antigen, anti-HBe is also positive.
- [amino acid](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/amino-acid/) - Any organic acid containing one or more amino groups (NH2) and a carboxyl group (CO2H) forming the essential components of proteins.
- [anaphylaxis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/anaphylaxis/) - This is a type l IgE mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It is an immediate response to antigenic challenge with the release of histamines and other agents causing capillary leak, wheeze, cyanosis, oedema of the larynx, tongue, lips and eyelids and urticaria. Anaphylaxis can result in sharp drops in blood pressure, difficulty in breathing, and death if left untreated.
- [allergic reaction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/allergic-reaction/) - This is a response to harmless environmental antigens due to a pre-existing antibody. The most common mechanism is the binding of the antigen or allergen to IgE antibody on mast cells causing asthma, hay fever, eczema and other common reactions. It is acquired and is classified as a type I (or immediate) hypersensitivity reaction.
- [allergy](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/allergy/) - This is a symptomatic reaction to substances that are otherwise harmless environmental antigens. It occurs from the interaction between the antigen and antibody produced from prior exposure to the antigen.
- [allergens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/allergens/) - These are antigens that bring about hypersensitivity or allergic reactions.
- [active site (N-site)](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/active-site-n-site/) - The enzyme surface to which a substrate molecule binds to undergo a reaction.
- [Absolute CD4](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/absolute-cd4/) - The absolute CD4 count is a measurement of how many functional CD4 T-cells are circulating in the blood. The lower the absolute CD4 count, the weaker the immune system. The absolute CD4 count is measured by a simple blood test and is reported as the number of CD4 cells per cubic millimetre of blood. HIV-negative people typically have absolute CD4 counts between 600 and 1200 CD4 cells per cubic millimetre. HIV-infected people have counts that are typically less than 500, and people with AIDS can have 200 CD4 cells per cubic millimetre or fewer.
- [phagocytosis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/phagocytosis/) - This is the internalisation of particulate matter by cells. Usually the phagocytic cells are macrophages or neutrophils and the particles taken up are bacteria. The ingested material is contained in a vesicle called a phagosome which fuses with a lysosme to form a phagolysosme. The lysosomal enzymes are important in destruction of the pathogen.
- [hydrophobic](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/glossary/hydrophobic/)

## Timeline Stories

- [Three Fractions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1959/) - Porter digested γ-globulins with papain, a proteolytic enzyme, and recovered 3 fractions: Fractions I and II of molecular weights between 50 and 55KDa retained the antigen binding capacity, whereas fraction III, of 80 KDa was crystallizable, and had a higher carbohydrate content (Porter RR, Biochem J. 73:119-127, 1959).
- [gamma-Globulin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1939/) - Tiselius and Kabat in 1939 showed that antibodies belong to the γ-globulin fraction of serum proteins
- [Thymoid](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/thymoid/) - In 2011, Bajoghli et al., found a “thymus-like lympho-epithelial structures, termed thymoids, in the tips of the gill filaments and the neighbouring secondary lamellae (both within the gill basket) of lamprey larvae” Nature 479:90-94, 2011
- [Aire Regulates](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/aire-regulates/) - Anderson et al., showed that Aire regulates the expression of a large number of promiscuously expressed genes in mTEC. Science 298:1395-1401, 2002
- [Tissue-restricted Antigens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/tissue-restricted-antigens/) - Derbinski et al., demonstrated that mTECs exhibit a promiscuous expression of tissue-restricted antigens (TRAs). Nature Immunol 2:1032-1039, 2001
- [CREB-binding Protein](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/creb-binding-protein/) - Pitkanen et al., showed that AIRE has transcriptional transactivator properties and interacts with the coactivator CREB-binding protein. J Biol Chem 275:16802-16809, 2000
- [mTECs](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mtecs/) - Zuklys et al., demonstrated that AIRE expression is restricted to medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) and thymic dendritic cells and participates in the process of negative selection. J Immunol 165:1976-1983, 2000
- [Notch1 Signals](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/notch1-signals/) - Radtke et al., (Immunity 10: 547-558, 1999) and Pui et al. (Immunity 11:299-308, 1999) demonstrated the crucial role of Notch1 signals in the early T lineage determination.
- [Self-antigens Transcripts](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/self-antigens-transcripts/) - Sospedra et al., demonstrated the presence of a broad range of self-antigens transcripts in human thymus. J Immunol 161:5918-5929, 1998
- [Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE) Gene](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/autoimmune-regulator-aire-gene/) - Mutations in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene were identified as responsible for autosomal recessive Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy-Candidiasis-Ectodermal Dystrophy (APECED) syndrome (Nature Genetics 17:399-403, 1997), also called Autoimmune Polyglandular syndrome type 1 (APS-1), and the human Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE) gene was mapped and cloned (Nagamine et al., Nature Genetics 17:393-398, 1997).
- [Thymocytes Selection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/thymocytes-selection/) - In the late 1980s and early 1990s many groups showed that thymocytes are subject to a positive and negative selection during their intrathymus differentiation and maturation process. Among these groups, von Boehmer and colleagues (Teh et al., Nature 335:229-235, 1988) using TCR transgenic mice demonstrated that thymocytes undergo positive selection in the cortex of the
- [T cell Receptor](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/t-cell-receptor/) - Tak Mak and colleagues using differential screening (Yanagi et al., Nature 308: 145-149) and Mark Davis and colleagues using cDNA substractive hybridization (Hedrick et al., Nature 308: 149-153, 1984; Hedrick et al., Nature 308: 153-158, 1984), independently were able to clone the genes of the T cell Receptor (TCR), elucidate its basic structure, and demonstrate
- [Monoclonal Clonotypic Antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/monoclonal-clonotypic-antibodies/) - Reinherz and his colleagues (J Exp Med 157:705-719, 1983) using human T cell clones, and Marrack and colleagues (J Exp Med 157: 1149-1169, 1983) using mouse T cell hybridomas obtained monoclonal clonotypic antibodies that identified on the T cell membrane a heterodimer of 90KD associated with the T3 molecule (now CD3).
- [T cell Hybridomas](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/t-cell-hybridomas/) - Kappler et al., generated antigen-specific, H-2-restricted, T cell hybridomas that recognize both antigen and H-2 using a single receptor. J Exp Med 153:1198-1214, 1981
- [Thymic Humoral Factor](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/thymic-humoral-factor/) - Trainin and colleagues isolated a Thymic Humoral Factor (THF) able to induce immunocompetent cells in spleen from neonatally thymectomized mice. J Exp Med 148: 71-83, 1978
- [MHC-restricted differentiating T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mhc-restricted-differentiating-t-cells/) - Zinkernagel et al., using thymic chimeras, demonstrated that the thymus is the tissue where the MHC-restricted differentiating T cells are selected. J Exp Med 147:882-896, 1978
- [Ly Molecules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/ly-molecules/) - In 1976, Cantor et al., reported that mouse thymocytes can be differentiated into four different subsets according to the expression of the Ly molecules: Ly123- (now CD4-CD8- or double negative, DN), Ly123+ (now CD4+CD8+ or double positive, DP), Ly1+ (now CD4+) and Ly2+3+ (now CD8+). J Exp Med 143:1391-1401, 1976
- [TdT](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/tdt/) - Coleman et al., described the presence of terminal-deoxynucleotide-tranferase (TdT) in thymocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 58:1104-9, 1974
- [Facteur Thymique Sérique](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/facteur-thymique-serique/) - Bach and Dardenne isolated the ´Facteur Thymique Sérique´ (FTS) that induces the expression of T cell antigens and restores the mitogen responsiveness in neonatally thymectomized mice. Cell Immunol 3:1-10, 1972
- [Thymin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/thymin/) - Goldstein and Manganaro reported the isolation from calf thymus of a factor that interferes with neuromuscular transmission and induces the expression of T cell maturation markers. This factor was called Thymin. Ann N Y Acad Sci 183:230-240, 1971
- [Bone-marrow and Thymus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/bone-marrow-and-thymus/) - Miller and colleagues in Melbourne demonstrated that antibody-forming cells are bone marrow-derived but require the help of thymus-derived cells to produce antibodies Mitchell and Miller, PNAS 59: 296-303, 1968; Miller and Mitchell J Exp Med 128: 801-819, 1968; Mitchell and Miller, J Exp Med 128:821-837, 1968
- [Athymic](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/athymic/) - Pantelouris showed that “nude” mice are athymic Nature 217:370, 1968
- [Autoimmune events](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/autoimmune-events/) - Yunis et al., described the presence of autoimmune events in neonatally thymectomized mice suffering a wasting syndrome, characterized by failure to gain weight, hypothermia, diarrhea and early death. J Exp Med 125:947-966, 1967
- [Thymosin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/thymosin/) - Goldstein et al., isolated from calf thymus a protein with lymphopoietic activity, that they termed Thymosin. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 56:1010, 1966
- [Histological Alterations](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/histological-alterations/) - Parrot et al., studied the histological alterations found in the spleen and lymph nodes of neonatally thymectomized mice and proposed that the lymphoid follicles surrounding the central arterioles of the spleen and the mid and deep cortical areas of the lymph nodes are thymic-dependent areas (tda). J Exp Med 123:191-204, 1966
- [B cells and T cells](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/b-cells-and-t-cells/) - Angelo M DiGeorge described the association of thymic aplasia, hypoparathyroidism and infection (DiGeorge´s syndrome). In the same paper Max D Cooper et al., proposed the existence of two types of immune responses: one mediated by lymphocytes generated in the Bursa of Fabricius in birds (B cells) and responsible for the production of antibodies, and the
- [Lymphocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/lymphocytes/) - In the late 1950s and early 1960s, James Gowans and colleagues in Oxford University demonstrated that lymphocytes obtained from the thoracic duct of rats and mice, labeled with 3H-thymidine and reinfused intravenously, were found in spleen and lymph nodes. Chronic drainage of thoracic duct resulted in depletion of small lymphocytes, unresponsiveness to different antigens and
- [Thy-1 Molecule](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/thy-1-molecule/) - Reif and Allen described the Thy-1 molecule (now CD90) as a cell differentiation marker in thymocytes, T cells and neurones. J Exp Med 120: 413-433, 1964
- [Immune Responsiveness](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/immune-responsiveness-2/) - Other groups also demonstrated that the thymus is essential for the generation of immunocompetent lymphocytes and immune responsiveness Jankovik et al., J Exp Med 116:159-176, 1962; Arnason et al., J Exp Med 116: 177-186, 1962; Waskman et al., J Exp Med 116: 187-205, 1962; Good et al., J Exp Med 116:773-795, 1962
- [Lymphocyte Differentiation](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/lymphocyte-differentiation/) - F. A P. Miller in a series of classical experiments demonstrated that neonatally thymectomized mice are lymphopenic and immunodeficient and proposed that the thymus is the lymphoid organ where small immunocompetent lymphocytes are differentiated. Miller, Lancet 278:748-749, 1961; Miller, Nature 195: 138-1319, 1962; Miller, Proc Roy Soc London B 16:415-428, 1962
- [Clonal selection theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/clonal-selection-theory/) - F. MacFarlane Burnet proposed in his “Clonal selection theory” that antigens are recognized by immunocompetent cells that either clonally expand to mount an immune response or are deleted resulting in tolerance. However, the identity of the immunocompetent cells was still unknown Burnet, Austr J Sci 20:67-69, 1957
- [Good's Syndrome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/goods-syndrome/) - Robert Good and Richard Varco described a new syndrome characterized by thymoma, lymphopenia, decreased serum gamma globulins and increased susceptibility to infections by encapsulated microorganisms, virus and fungi. The syndrome was known as Good´s syndrome Lancet 75:245-71, 1955
- [Mesenchyme](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mesenchyme/) - Weller reported that the thymus and the parathyroids are formed by the third and fourth endodermal pharyngeal pouches that migrate laterally in surrounding mesenchyme Pahwa et al., Thymus 1:27-58, 1979
- [Particles](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/particles/) - William Hewson wrote ‘The thymus gland we consider as being an appendage to the lymphatic glands, for the more perfectly and expeditiously forming the central particles of the blood of the foetus, and in the early part of life. We have proved that vast numbers of central particles made by the thymus and lymphatic glands
- [Isagoge](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/isagoge/) - Jacopo Berengario da Carpi in his Isagoge breves made the first description of the thymus Bach J-F, Endeavour 2:154-160, 1978
- [The Soul](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-soul/) - “The ancient Greeks, who performed sacrificial rites on very young and generally prepubertal animals, noted an extensive mass of tissue in the chest above the heart extending for some distance up into the neck and concluded that it must be the seat of the ´soul´.” Miller JAFP, Thymus 1:3-25, 1979 Video: https://youtu.be/NnMZ0Uxol-M
- [3D HLA Class II Molecules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/3d-hla-class-ii-molecules/) - The three-dimensional structure of the HLA Class II molecules was proposed by Brown et al. in 1988 (Nature 332:845, 1988) and confirmed by the same group for HLA-DR1 (Nature 364:33, 1993).
- [Nomenclature](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/nomenclature/) - In 2011 the WHO Nomenclature Committee for Factors of the HLA System updated the rules for the nomenclature of HLA loci and alleles (Marsh , Tissue Antigens 78:482, 2011; http://hla.alleles.org/nomenclature/naming). Presently, >18000 HLA alleles (HLA class I 13,324 and HLA class II 4857 have become known primarily due to extensive improvements in molecular based technologies.
- [C1q Binding Assay](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/c1q-binding-assay/) - In 2011, Chin et al (J Heart Lung Transplant 30:158, 2011) introduced the C1q binding assay for detection of Complement-activating HLA antibodies.
- [MICA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mica/) - Since 2008, role of MICA (MHC class I associated) allelic polymorphism and the possible influence of non-HLA antibodies in organ transplantation is a subject of intense debate.
- [HLA Antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-antibodies/) - In 2002, Terasaki´s group reported that all chronic rejection kidney failures were preceded by the development of HLA antibodies (Transpl 74:1192, 2002)
- [HLA Matchmaker algorithm](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-matchmaker-algorithm/) - In 2002, Rene Duquesnoy (Human Immunol 63:339, 2002) introduced the HLA Matchmaker algorithm that allows to calculate the level of HLA sensitization.
- [Multiplex Analysis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/multiplex-analysis/) - In 1997, Fulton et al (Clin Chem 43:1749, 1997) introduced the multiplex analysis technique for detection of HLA antibodies.
- [Chronic Rejection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/chronic-rejection/) - In 1995 Buchler et al (Transplant Proc 27:2478, 1995) reported that the development of post-transplant anti-HLA antibodies is associated with chronic rejection.
- [Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/bare-lymphocyte-syndrome/) - In 1993, Steimie et al (Cell 75:135, 1993) demonstrated that the ‘Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome’, characterized by the complete lack of HLA class II expression leading to severe combined immunodeficiency, is caused by deletion in a gene that regulates the expression of class II molecules, the Class II Transactivator (CIITA).
- [ELISA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/elisa/) - In 1993, Kao et al (Transplantation 55:192, 1993) introduced ELISA as an immunoassay for the detection of anti-HLA antibodies.
- [Polymerase Chain Reaction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/polymerase-chain-reaction/) - Following the development of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) by Saiki (Science 230:1350, 1985), several DNA based procedures were developed for molecular HLA typing. This includes: Sequence Specific Oligo hybridization (SSOP) (Wordsworth, Immunol Lett 29:37, 1991) , PCR based Sequence Specific Primer technology or PCR-SSP (Olerup and Zetterquist, Tissue Antigens 39:225, 1992), PCR-Single Strand Conformation
- [Direct Allorecognition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/direct-allorecognition/) - In 1991 Rotzschke et al (J Exp Med 174:1059, 1991) demonstrated that cytotoxic T lymphocytes could directly recognize allogeneic MHC-peptide complexes, without presentation by autologous antigen presenting cells. This phenomenon is known as direct allorecognition.
- [LMP](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/lmp/) - In 1991, a proteasome gene was found in the HLA class II region (Glynne et al, Nature 353:357, 1991). Soon after, Rock et al (Cell 78:761, 1994) demonstrated that the low molecular weight proteasome (LMP) was involved in the generation of peptides that are then transported into the ER by TAP.
- [Acute Rejection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/acute-rejection/) - In 1990, Halloran and colleagues (Transplantation 49:85:1990) demonstrated that de novo produced, donor-specific HLA class I antibodies can induce acute rejection of kidney grafts.
- [TAP](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/tap/) - In 1990, three groups simultaneously demonstrated that a gene located on the class II region regulates the class I antigen presentation (Deverson et al., Nature 348:738, 1990; Trowsdale et al., Nature 348:741, 1990; Spies et al., Nature 348:744, 1990). The gene codes for an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily of transporter proteins that transport peptides from
- [CLIP](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/clip/) - Roche and Creswell (Nature 345:615, 1990) demonstrated that a part of the invariant chain Ii, the class II-associated Ii peptide (CLIP), temporarily blocks the peptide-binding groove of nascent class II molecules.
- [Leukocytes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/leukocytes/) - In 1900, John Beard wrote “It has fallen to my lot to show that the first leukocytes arise in the thymus, from its epithelial cells, and that the thymus must be regarded as the parent source of all the lymphoid structures of the body…., so the original leukocytes, starting from their birth place in the
- [The Instruction Theories](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-instruction-theories/) - “The antigen acted as a template which instructed the cell what antibody it has to form” Breinl, F. & Haurowitz, F., Z. Physiol. Chem., 192:45, 1930. “The completed antibody molecule will therefore possess to some degree a stereochemical correspondence with the antigen for the reason that each structural unit has been selected and oriented, at
- [The Side-Chain Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-side-chain-theory/) - “Regarded in accordance with this conception, the antitoxins represent nothing more than side-chains reproduced in excess during regeneration, and therefore pushed off from the protoplasma, and so coming to exist in a free state” Nobel Prize 1908 P. Ehrlich, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 1899 66, 424-448
- [The Adaptive Enzyme Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-adaptive-enzyme-theory/) - Burnet F.M: The Production of Antibodies, Macmillan, Melbourne, 1941 “Burnet postulated that once introduced into the body, antigen would find its way into the cells of the reticuloendothelial system, where contact with local proteinases would result in adaptive modification of the enzymes during the dissolution of the antigen molecule. These newly adapted enzymes would then
- [The Danger Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-danger-theory/) - “For many years immunologists have been well served by the viewpoint that the immune system's primary goal is to discriminate between self and non-self. I believe that it is time to change viewpoints and, in this essay, I discuss the possibility that the immune system does not care about self and non-self, that its primary
- [The Extended Clonal Selection Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-extended-clonal-selection-theory/) - "Table 1. Nine propositions. Al. The stereospecific segment of each antibody globulin is determined by a unique sequence of amino acids. A2. The cell making a given antibody has a correspondingly unique sequence of nucleotides in a segment of its chromosomal DNA: its "gene for globulin synthesis." A3. The genic diversity of the precursors of
- [The Clonal Selection Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-clonal-selection-theory-2/) - “This is the crux of the clonal selection hypothesis. It assumes that in the animal there exist clones of mesenchymal cells, each carrying immunologically reactive sites corresponding in appropriate complementary fashion to one (or possibly a small number of) potential antigenic determinants. This provides a population of cells which, when an appropriate stage of development
- [The Clonal Selection Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-clonal-selection-theory/) - “It is postulated that when antigen-natural antibody contact takes place on the surface of a lymphocyte the cell is activated to settle in an appropriate tissue, spleen, lymph node or local inflammatory accumulation, and there undergo proliferation to produce a variety of descendants. In this way preferential proliferation will be initiated of all those clones
- [The Cellular Selection Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-cellular-selection-theory/) - “The process of natural selection requires the selective multiplication of a few species out of a diverse population. As a working hypothesis it is tempting to consider that one of the multiplying units in the antibody response is the cell itself. According to this hypothesis, only those cells are selected for multiplication whose synthesized product
- [The Natural Selection Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-natural-selection-theory/) - “A theory of antibody formation is proposed which postulates the spontaneous presence, in the blood of an animal, of small numbers of antibody molecules against all antigens to which the animal can respond, and delegates to the antigen the sole role of carrying such specific globulin molecules from the circulation into cells in which these
- [The Indirect Template Theory](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-indirect-template-theory/) - “(i) To account for the non-antigenicity of body components these were assumed to carry ' self-markers ‘; at some point in the antibody-producing sequence a 'recognition unit' was postulated to act as a means of detecting material carrying self-markers and deflecting it from the possibility of immune response; (ii) To account for the persistence of
- [The Instruction Theories](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/the-instruction-theories-2/) - “It is assumed that antibodies differ from normal serum globulin only in the way in which the two end parts of the globulin polypeptide chain are coiled, these parts, as a result of their amino-acid composition and order, having accessible a very great many configurations with nearly the same stability; under the influence of an
- [Acquired Immunity](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/acquired-immunity/) - Girolamo Fracastoro (1478-1553) explained that acquired immunity to smallpox results from the expulsion during the first illness of the menstrual blood contaminant without which clinical disease could not recur.
- [Smallpox](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/smallpox/) - Rhazes (880-932) believed that smallpox was due to a fermentation of the blood which was permitted by its “excess moisture.” Immunity is explained by expulsion of the “excess moisture” from the body during the first attack.
- [Plague](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/plague/) - Thucydides, in his description of the plague of Athens of B.C.430: “Yet it was with those who had recovered from the disease that the sick and the dying found most compassion. These knew what it was from experience, and had now no fear for themselves; for the same man was never attacked twice - never
- [1996 Nobel Prize](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1996-nobel-prize/) - In 1996, Peter Doherty and Rolf Zinkernagel shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Biology for their discovery on the role of MHC class I antigens in the recognition of viral-infected target cells by CD8+ T cells and “MHC restriction”. Nobel Prize 1996 - discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence
- [HLA bind antigenic peptides](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-bind-antigenic-peptides/) - In 1987, Pamela Bjorkman, Jack Strominger and colleagues reported the three-dimensional structure of HLA-A2 by X-ray cristallography (Nature 329: 506, 1987; and 329:512, 1987). They demonstrated that polymorphic amino acid residues located in the floor or side chains of the peptide binding groove of HLA class I molecules bind antigenic peptides in specific residues, while
- [H-2k and I-Ak molecules](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/h-2k-and-i-ak-molecules/) - In 1985, Emil Unanue and his colleagues described the characteristics of the peptides binding H-2k (Class I) (J Immunol 135:368, 1985) and I-Ak (Class II) (Nature 317:359, 1985) molecules.
- [Single Recombinant HLA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/single-recombinant-hla/) - Bernabeu et al. (J Immunol 131:2032, 1983) reported the production of single recombinant HLA molecules, opening the possibility to use these molecules for the detection of antigen-specific responses.
- [Flow Cytometry](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/flow-cytometry/) - Garovoy et al. (Transplant Proc: 15:1939, 1983) introduced flow cytometry as the more sensitive technique for the pre-transplant crossmatch analysis.
- [Collaborative Transplant Study](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/collaborative-transplant-study/) - In 1982, Gerhard Opelz, at the University of Heidelberg (Germany), launched the Collaborative Transplant Study (CTS), an international collaborative program involving a large number of transplant groups and tissue typing laboratories. The data collected through CTS clearly demonstrated an important effect of HLA matching on kidney graft survival. The CTS has been a great source
- [1980 Nobel Prize](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1980-nobel-prize/) - In 1980, Jean Dausset, George Snell and Baruj Benacerraf were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Biology for their discoveries on the MHC. Peter Gorer could not make the list because he had passed away in 1961. Nobel Prize 1980 - Discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions.
- [Invariant Chain](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/invariant-chain/) - Jones et al., (Mol Immunol 16:51, 1979) reported the existence of an invariant chain (Ii) that binds the α and β class II chains in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), before the trimer moves to the Golgi apparatus.
- [HLA-DR matching](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-dr-matching/) - Ting and Morris (Lancet 1(8064):575, 1978) and Albrechtsen et al. (Lancet 2(8100):1226, 1978) reported a strong effect of HLA-DR matching on kidney graft survival.
- [alpha and beta chains](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/alpha-beta-chains/) - The class II α and β chains were identified during the late 1970s by many groups, for both H-2 (Cullen et al. Transplantation 30:236, 1976; Freed et al. J Immunol 121:91, 1978; Cook et al. J Immunol 123:2799, 1979) and HLA-DR systems (Humpreys et al. J Exp Med 144:98, 1976; Kaufman and Strominger, Proc Natl Acad
- [Antigen Recognition](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/antigen-recognition/) - In 1977, Els Goulmy et al. (Nature 266:544, 1977) demonstrated that antigen recognition by CD8 T cells was restricted by class I molecules, while Bergholtz and Thorsby (Scand J Immunol 6:779, 1977) showed that class II molecules restrict antigen recognition by CD4 T cells.
- [Linkage](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/linkage/) - Rittner and colleagues (Histocompatibility Testing, p945, 1975) demonstrated a linkage between HLA genes and the complement component C4.
- [B2-microglobulin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/b2-microglobulin/) - Goodfellow et al. (Nature 254:267, 1975) and Smith et al. (Am J Hum Genet 39:21, 1975) assigned the human b2-microglobulin locus to chromosome 15.
- [Diabetes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/diabetes/) - The association of Type I diabetes (IDDM) and HLA was first reported by Singal et al. (Diabetes 22:429, 1973) and confirmed by the classical studies of Nerup and colleagues (Lancet 2(7885): 864, 1974) and Cudworth and Woodrow (Br Med J 3:133, 1975).
- [Gene Linkage](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/gene-linkage/) - Fu et al. (J Exp Med 140:1108, 1974) demonstrated a linkage between HLA and the gene responsible for complement component C2. Allen (Vox Sang 27:382, 1974) reported that the complement Factor B (Bf) gene is in linkage with HLA genes.
- [HLA Complex](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-complex/) - In 1974, van Someren et al. (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 71:962, 1974) and Lamm et al. (Hum Hered 24:273, 1974) assigned the HLA complex to human chromosome 6.
- [MHC Restriction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mhc-restriction/) - In 1974, Peter Doherty and Rolf Zinkernagel published a series of papers (Nature 248:701, 1974; Nature 251: 547, 1974) demonstrating that recognition of viral infected target cells by CD8+ T cells is restricted by MHC class I genes. They put forward the concept of ‘MHC restriction’.
- [HLA-DR](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-dr/) - The HLA-DR (HLA-D Related) antigens were serologically detected on B lymphocytes using immunofluorescence (van Leeuwen et al., Transplant Proc 5:1539: 1973)
- [Ankylosing Spondylitis](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/ankylosing-spondylitis/) - A strong association of HLA-B27 and Ankylosing Spondylitis was reported by Caffrey and James (Nature 242:121, 1973), Brewerton et al. (Lancet 1(7809):904, 1973) and Schlosstein et al (N Engl J Med 288:704, 1973)
- [Linked Ir Genes](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/linked-ir-genes/) - Allan Rosenthal and Ethan Shevach (J Exp Med 136: 1207, 1972; J Exp Med 138: 1194 and 1213, 1973) demonstrated that antigen recognition by guinea pig T cells was regulated by macrophages and restricted by the MHC class II linked Ir genes.
- [HLA and Human Diseases](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-and-human-diseases/) - Three groups published their data on the possible association of HLA with human diseases: Falchuck et al (J Clin Invest 51:1602, 1972) reported that the frequency HLA-B8 was increased in patients with celiac disease while Russell et al. (N Engl J Med 287:738, 1972) and White et al (N Engl J Med 287:740. 1972) showed
- [Chromosome 17](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/chromosome-17/) - The H-2 complex was assigned to mouse chromosome 17 by Miller et al. (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 68:1530, 1971)
- [HL-D](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hl-d/) - In 1971, Yunis and Amos (Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 68:3031, 1971) showed that the mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR) was controlled by an independent locus (HL-D), centromeric to the serologically detected HL-B.
- [HLA-C locus](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-c-locus/) - Sandberg et al. (Histocompatibility Testing p163, 1970) assigned the first serologically defined antigens to the HLA-C locus.
- [Nobel Prize - 1987](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/nobel-prize-1987/) - In 1987, Susumo Tonegawa was awarded with the Nobel Prize for his discoveries on the mechanisms of somatic rearrangement of the immunoglobulin genes. Susumo Tonegawa - Facts. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014.
- [Nobel Prize - 1972](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/nobel-prize-1972/) - Edelman and Porter shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1972 "for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies" Gerald M. Edelman - Facts. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Rodney R. Porter - Facts. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014.
- [Nobel Prize - 1984](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/nobel-prize-1984/) - In 1984, Niels Jerne, Georges Kohler and Cesar Milstein were awarded with the Nobel Prize for their discovery of the hybridomas technology for the production of large amounts of monoclonal antibodies for experimental, analytical, diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Niels K. Jerne - Facts. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Georges J.F. Köhler - Facts. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media
- [Somatic Rearrangements](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/somatic-rearrangements/) - In the late 1970s, Tonegawa and colleagues in a series of elegant experiments demonstrated that immunoglobulin V and C genes undergo somatic rearrangements to form the complete immunoglobulin gene (Hozumi N, Tonegawa S, Proc Nat Acad Sci 73: 3628- 3632, 1976; Brack C et al., Cell 15:1-14, 1978; Sakano et al., Nature 277:627-633, 1979; Sakano
- [Monoclonal antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/monoclonal-antibodies/) - Kohler and Milstein (Nature 256: 495-497, 1975) reported that the fusion of a myeloma cell with a spleen specific antibody-producing cell results in a hybridoma that produces monoclonal antibodies against the specific antigen. Continuous culture of cloned hybrid cells allows the production of large amounts of monoclonal antibodies against the desired antigen.
- [Lambda chain](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/lambda-chain/) - Hood and Ein confirmed that the Lambda chain is encoded by two separate genes that are expressed as a single polypeptide chain (Nature 220:764-767, 1968)
- [V and C Regions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/v-and-c-regions/) - Dreyer and Bennett proposed that the V and C regions must be the products of different genes (Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 54: 864-869, 1965)
- [De novo Donor-specific Antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/de-novo-donor-specific-antibodies/) - Jeannet et al., (N Engl J Med 282:111, 1970) reported that the development of de novo donor-specific antibodies early after kidney transplantation was associated with severe vascular rejection and poor allograft survival.
- [Two loci, K and D](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/two-loci-k-and-d/) - Erik Thorsby (Eur J Immunol 1:57, 1970) and Snell et al. (Transplant Proc 3:183, 1971) independently proposed that the known H-2 genes were encoded by two loci, K and D.
- [Hyperacute Rejection](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hyperacute-rejection/) - Patel and Terasaki (N Engl J Med 280:735, 1969) demonstrated that the presence of preformed cytotoxic antibodies in recipients of renal grafts was associated with hyperacute rejection.
- [HLA Compatibility](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-compatibility/) - In 1969, Ceppellini et al. (Transplant Proc 1:385, 1969) provided experimental evidence in man that indicated that the survival of skin grafts depended on HLA compatibility between the donor and the recipient.
- [HLA Nomenclature Committee](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-nomenclature-committee/) - In 1968, the World Health Organization (WHO) sponsored the establishment of an HLA Nomenclature Committee, which is still active and continues to revise the system.
- [HLA Antigens](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-antigens/) - Kissmeyer-Nielsen et al. (Nature 219:1116, 1968) defined the first series of HLA antigens assigned to the HLA-A and B loci.
- [HLA Matching](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hla-matching/) - The first evidence that HLA matching improved renal graft survival was published in 1968 (Morris et al., Lancet 2(7572):803, 1968; Patel et al., N Engl J Med 279:501, 1968)
- [Beta 2-Microglobulin](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/β2-microglobulin/) - β2-microglobulin was first isolated by Bergard and Bearn (J Biol Chem 243:4095, 1968) from the urine of patients with cadmium-induced renal tubular damage. The complete protein sequence was published in 1972 by Peterson et al. (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 69:1697, 1972) indicating that it belonged to the Ig superfamily.
- [Class I alpha Chain](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/class-i-α-chain/) - Class I α chain was first isolated in 1968 by Mann et al (Nature 217: 1180, 1968) and Nathenson and Shimada (Transplantation 6:662, 1968).
- [Hodgkin’s Disease](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/hodgkins-disease/) - The first report of an association between HLA and a human disease was by Amiel in 1967 (Histocompatibility Testing p79, 1967), who published a weak association of HLA-B5, B15 and BW35 with Hodgkin’s disease.
- [Mixed Lymphocyte Culture (MLC) reaction](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mixed-lymphocyte-culture-mlc-reaction/) - In 1967, Fritz Bach and Bernard Amos reported that HL-A genes control the Mixed Lymphocyte Culture (MLC) reaction.
- [Complement Dependent Cytotoxicity (CDC) Assay](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/cdc/) - In 1964, Paul Terasaki and John McClelland (Nature 204:998, 1964) introduced the microlymphocytotoxicity test, known as complement dependent cytotoxicity assay or simply CDC, which became the standard serological assay for HLA typing and cross-matching in clinical tissue transplantation.
- [MHC polymorphisms](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mhc-polymorphisms/) - Also in 1964, Frank Lilly and colleagues (Lancet 2(7371):1207, 1964) reported an association between H-2 and susceptibility to viral leukemogenesis in the mouse system. This was the first publication of a possible association of MHC polymorphisms and disease susceptibility.
- [MHC Workshops](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mhc-workshops/) - In 1964, Bernard Amos organized the First International Histocompatibility Workshop (IHWS) at Duke University, North Carolina, USA, where participants compared various techniques for the detection of human leukocyte antigens. This led to the start of a very productive international collaborative program, which contributed significantly to further define the HLA loci with their multiple alleles. It
- [C4 component of complement](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/c4-component-of-complement/) - In 1963, Shrefler and Owen (Genetics 48:9, 1053) discovered a mouse serum protein whose levels were genetically determined by genes located on the H-2 loci. They called it ´Ss´, later identified as the C4 component of complement.
- [Nobel Prize - 1960](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/nobel-prize-1960/) - In 1960, Peter Medawar received the Nobel Prize for his pioneering studies on tissue transplantation and immunological tolerance. The Prize was shared with McFarlane Burnet who postulated the Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity. Nobel Prize 1960 - The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1960 "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance."
- [MHC immune responses](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mhc-immune-responses/) - In the 1960s, studies done by Baruj Benacerraf and colleagues (Levine et al. J Exp Med 118:953, 1963) and Hugh McDevitt and coworkers (J Exp Med 126:969, 1967), amongst others, revealed that the MHC genes controlled specific immune responses through what they called Immune Response genes (Ir genes).
- [Anti-leukocyte antibodies](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/anti-leukocyte-antibodies/) - Rose Payne in the US (J Clin Invest 37:1756, 1958) and Jon van Rood in the Netherlands (Nature 151:1735, 1958) working independently reported the presence of anti-leukocyte antibodies in the sera of pregnant women. This set the momentum for the availability of mono or oligospecific HLA antisera to determine HLA antigens in an individual.
- [MAC - HLA-A2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/mac-hla-a2/) - Jean Dausset (1916-2009) discovered the first HLA antigen in 1958, which he named “MAC”, the three letters based on the first names of three of his volunteers. Later it came to be recognized as HLA-A2.
- [Leuco-agglutinins](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/leuco-agglutinins/) - Jean Dausset in 1950s (Vox Sang 4:190, 1954; Acta Haematol 20: 156, 1958; and 20:185, 1958) was the first to describe antibodies to platelets in the sera of multitransfused patients that were able to agglutinate donor leukocytes. He referred to them as leuco-agglutinins.
- [Gene H2](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/gene-h2/) - In 1948, Gorer, Lyman and George Snell published a landmark paper (Proc Royal Soc B 4:9i9, 1948) demonstrating that antigen II was identical to the antigen present on tumors of two strains of mice and was the major factor controlling graft acceptance. The gene coding for this antigen was named H2, where´H´stands for Histocompatibility. The
- [Allografts](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/allografts/) - In 1944, Peter Medawar (J Anat 78:176, 1944) studying skin transplants in rabbits demonstrated that rejection of homografts (now named allografts) is the result of a specific and systemic immune response.
- [Antigen II](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/antigen-ii/) - Peter A. Gorer in 1936 discovered the antigen II on mouse erythrocytes (Br J Exp Pathol 17:42-50, 1936) and the very next year he reported that this antigen is identical to the gene controlling susceptibility to a transplantable sarcoma (J Pathol Bacteriol 41:691-696, 1937).
- [1930 Nobel Prize](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1930-nobel-prize/) - In 1930, Karl Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology for the discovery of the human ABO blood system. Nobel Prize 1930 - The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930 was awarded to Karl Landsteiner "for his discovery of human blood groups."
- [Discovery of the MHC](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/discovery-of-the-mhc/) - During the first decade of the 20th century, two important advances were made that paved the way to the discovery of the MHC in later years: Loeb and Tyzzer discovered that the resistance and susceptibility to transplantable tumors are genetically determined by at least 15 genes. Inbred strains of mice were developed by Little (DBA/1,
- [20th Century Discoveries](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/20th-century-discoveries/) - The turn of the 20th century serves as a landmark due to two important events: recognition of Gregory Mendel’s work of 1867 and his theory of inheritance, and discovery in 1901 of the blood group system on erythrocytes by Karl Landsteiner, an Austrian scientist. This set the pace for search of a similar polymorphic system
- [3D Structure](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/3d-structure/) - Poljak and colleagues described the three-dimensional structure of IgG(l) myeloma protein (Poljak et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci 71. 3440-3444, 1974).
- [Monomers](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1974/) - Koshland and coworkers demonstrated that the monomers of the polymeric IgM and IgA are linked by the J chain in a clasp way (Halpern MS and Koshland ME. Nature 228:1276-1278, 1970; Chapuis RM, Koshland ME, Proc Nat Acad Sci 71:657-661, 1974)
- [Variable and Constant Regions](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1969/) - Edelman and coworkers reported the first complete sequence of a γG immunoglobulin molecule and demonstrated the existence of variable (V) and constant (C) regions in the H and L chains (Edelman GM et al., Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 63:78-85, 1969)
- [IgA](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1965/) - Tomasi and coworkers demonstrated that IgA present in saliva and colostrum is produced locally and secreted as a dimer or trimer by (Tomasi TB et al., J Exp Med 121:101-124, 1965) and Newcomb and coworkers demonstrated the existence of the secretory piece (Newcomb RW et al., J immunol 101:905-913, 1968).
- [Y Structure](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1963/) - Porter and colleagues proposed the basic Y structure of four polypeptide chains and 5 interchain disulfide bonds (Fleischman JB et al., Biochem J. 88:220-228, 1963)
- [Heavy and Light chains](https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/timeline/1961/) - Edelman and Poulik reported that rabbit 7S γ-globulins and human myeloma proteins reduced in strong urea solutions and alkylated, separated into heavy (H) and light (L) chains bound by disulfide bonds (Edelman GM and Poulik MD, J Exp Med. 113:861-884, 1961)

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